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φωνεῖν, οἷον αὐλὸς καὶ λύρα καὶ ὅσα ἄλλα τῶν ἀψύχων ἀπότασιν ἔχει καὶ μέλος καὶ διάλεκτον· ἔοικε γὰρ ὅτι καὶ ἡ φωνὴ ταῦτ ̓ ἔχει. πολλὰ δὲ τῶν ζῴων οὐκ ἔχουσι φωνήν, οἷον τά τε ἄναιμα καὶ τῶν ἐναίμων ἰχθύες· ἀλλ ̓ το οἱ λεγόμενοι φωνεῖν, οἷον ἐν τῷ ̓Αχελῴῳ, ψοφοῦσι τοῖς βραγχίοις ἤ τινι ἑτέρῳ τοιούτῳ· καὶ τοῦτ ̓ εὐλόγως, εἴπερ § το αέρος κίνησίς τίς ἐστιν ὁ ψόφος· φωνὴ δ ̓ ἐστὶ ζῴου ψόφος, καὶ οὐ τῷ τυχόντι μορίῳ. ἀλλ ̓ ἐπεὶ πᾶν ψοφεῖ τύπτοντός τινος καί τι καὶ ἔν τινι, τοῦτο δ ̓ ἐστὶν ἀήρ, εὐλόγως ἂν 15 φωνοίη ταῦτα μόνα ὅσα δέχεται τὸν ἀέρα. ἤδη γὰρ τῷ ἀναπνεομένῳ καταχρῆται ἡ φύσις ἐπὶ δύο ἔργα, καθάπερ τῇ γλώττῃ ἐπί τε τὴν γεῦσιν καὶ τὴν διάλεκτον, ὧν ἡ μὲν γεῦσις ἀναγκαῖον (διὸ καὶ πλείοσιν ὑπάρχει), ἡ δ ̓ ἑρμηνεία ἕνεκα τοῦ εὖ, οὕτω καὶ τῷ πνεύματι πρός τε τὴν θερμότητα τὴν ἐντὸς ὡς ἀναγκαῖον (τὸ δ' αἴτιον ἐν ἑτέροις § 11 εἰρήσεται) καὶ πρὸς τὴν φωνήν, ὅπως ὑπάρχῃ τὸ εὖ. ὄργανον δὲ τῇ ἀναπνοῇ ὁ φάρυγξ· οὗ δ ̓ ἕνεκα καὶ τὸ μόριόν ἐστι τοῦτο, πλεύμων τούτῳ γὰρ τῷ μορίῳ πλεῖστον ἔχει τὸ θερμὸν τὰ πεζὰ τῶν ἄλλων. δεῖται δὲ τῆς ἀναπνοῆς καὶ 15 ὁ περὶ τὴν καρδίαν τόπος πρῶτος. διὸ ἀναγκαῖον εἴσω ἀναπνεομένου εἰσιέναι τὸν ἀέρα. ὥστε ἡ πληγὴ τοῦ ἀναπνεομένου ἀέρος ὑπὸ τῆς ἐν τούτοις τοῖς μορίοις ψυχῆς πρὸς τὴν κατ λουμένην ἀρτηρίαν φωνή ἐστιν. οὐ γὰρ πᾶς ζῴου ψόφος φωνή, καθάπερ εἴπομεν (ἔστι γὰρ καὶ τῇ γλώττῃ ψοφεῖν καὶ 30 ὡς οἱ βήττοντες), ἀλλὰ δεῖ ἔμψυχόν τε εἶναι τὸ τύπτον καὶ μετὰ φαντασίας τινός σημαντικὸς γὰρ δή τις ψόφος ἐστὶν ἡ φωνή, καὶ οὐ τοῦ ἀναπνεομένου αέρος, ὥσπερ ἡ βήξ·

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similarity between it and the human voice, as is for instance the case with pipe and lyre and all other inanimate objects which possess those qualities of pitch and measure and articulation which seem to characterize the human voice also. Many animals however do not have a voice, as is the case with all bloodless animals, and is among sanguineous species the case with fishes those which are said to speak, as is the case with the fishes in the Achelous, only in reality making a noise with their gills or with something of this kind. And this is only what might have been expected. Sound indeed is but a movement of the air: but voice is the sound of a living being, and this too not with any chance part of the body. But as sound is always the result of something striking something else and doing so in something, viz. air, it follows that it is only those objects which take in air that possess a voice. Now nature uses the air which has been inspired for two functions, just as it employs the tongue at once for tasting and articulation-functions of which the one, viz. taste, is necessary, and thus belongs to the majority of animals, whereas the other, i.e. intelligible speech, is for ideal ends. In this same manner, nature employs the breath at once to regulate the internal heat as something necessary (a fact of which the reason will be stated elsewhere), and also to frame speech or voice as something contributing to our nobler ends in life.

To inhale this breath the organ we employ is the throat, and this itself is subservient to another part, the lungs. It is in fact by means of this part that land animals possess more heat than others. Now the region round about the heart first stands in need of inhalation: and therefore on inspiration air necessarily presses in. And so the inhaled air when the vital principle in these parts of the organism strikes it against the so-called windpipe is what makes a vocal utterance. For, as has been said, all the sounds made by animals are not vocal: it is possible to make a noise even with the tongue or in the way that people. do in coughing: for voice, on the contrary, the organ striking must be animate and must be accompanied by some mental image. Voice, in fact, is sound possessed of meaning: it is not merely a reaction against the air inhaled, as is the case with

§ 12 ἀλλὰ τούτῳ τύπτει τὸν ἐν τῇ ἀρτηρίᾳ πρὸς αὐτήν. σημεῖον 421* δὲ τὸ μὴ δύνασθαι φωνεῖν ἀναπνέοντα μηδ ̓ ἐκπνέοντα, ἀλλὰ κατέχοντα· κινεῖ γὰρ τοῦτο ὁ κατέχων. φανερὸν δὲ καὶ διότι οἱ ἰχθύες ἄφωνοι· οὐ γὰρ ἔχουσι φάρυγγα. τοῦτο δὲ τὸ μόριον οὐκ ἔχουσιν, ὅτι οὐ δέχονται τὸν ἀέρα οὐδ ̓ ἀνα- 5 πνέουσιν. δι ̓ ἣν μὲν οὖν αἰτίαν, ἕτερός ἐστι λόγος.

δι

ΙΧ. Περὶ δὲ ὀσμῆς καὶ ὀσφραντοῦ ἧττον εὐδιόριστόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρημένων· οὐ γὰρ δῆλον ποιόν τί ἐστιν ἡ ὀσμή, οὕτως ὡς ὁ ψόφος ἢ τὸ χρῶμα. αἴτιον δ' ὅτι τὴν αἴσθησιν ταύτην οὐκ ἔχομεν ἀκριβῆ, ἀλλὰ χείρω πολλῶν ζῴων· φαύλως γὰρ ἄν- το θρωπος ὀσμᾶται, καὶ οὐθενὸς αἰσθάνεται τῶν ὀσφραντῶν ἄνευ τοῦ λυπηροῦ ἢ τοῦ ἡδέος, ὡς οὐκ ὄντος ἀκριβοῦς τοῦ αἰσθη§ 2 τηρίου. εὔλογον δ' οὕτω καὶ τὰ σκληρόφθαλμα τῶν χρωμά των αἰσθάνεσθαι, καὶ μὴ διαδήλους αὐτοῖς εἶναι τὰς διαφορὰς τῶν χρωμάτων πλὴν τῷ φοβερῷ καὶ ἀφόβῳ. οὕτω 15 δὲ καὶ τὰς ὀσμὰς τὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων γένος· ἔοικε μὲν γὰρ ἀνάλογον ἔχειν πρὸς τὴν γεῦσιν καὶ ὁμοίως τὰ εἴδη τῶν χυμῶν τοῖς τῆς ὀσμῆς, ἀλλ ̓ ἀκριβεστέραν ἔχομεν τὴν γενσιν διὰ τὸ εἶναι αὐτὴν ἀφήν τινα, ταύτην δ ̓ ἔχειν τὴν αἴσθησιν τὸν ἄνθρωπον ἀκριβεστάτην· ἐν μὲν γὰρ ταῖς ἄλλαις το λείπεται πολλῶν τῶν ζῴων, κατὰ δὲ τὴν ἁφὴν πολλῷ τῶν ἄλλων διαφερόντως ἀκριβοῖ. διὸ καὶ φρονιμώτατόν ἐστι τῶν ζῴων. σημεῖον δὲ τὸ καὶ ἐν τῷ γένει τῶν ἀνθρώπων παρὰ τὸ αἰσθητήριον τοῦτο εἶναι εὐφυεῖς καὶ ἀφνεῖς, παρ' ἄλλο

421* Ι. τοῦτο Χ. δὲ] γὰρ STUVW.

3. ἀλλὰ κατέχοντα om. Ε. || τούτω STUX. τούτῳ Tor. Π
5. ἀναπνέουσιν. ἀλλ' οἱ λέγοντες οὕτως ἁμαρτάνουσιν.
9. ψ. ἢ τὸ φῶς ἢ TWXy.
II. αἰσθ.]
λείπεται πολλῷ Bekk. ESUV Ald. [ ἀφὴν πολλῷ]

δι' SVW.
ὀσφραίνεται ETW Tor.
ἀφ. πολλῶν Bekk.

6. ἔσται SUVX.

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coughing rather with this air we strike the air within the windpipe against the windpipe itself.

This explanation of the voice is confirmed by the fact that it is impossible to speak when inhaling air or respiring, but only when we hold the breath: because in checking thus the breath we move the air that has been taken in. This also explains why fishes are devoid of voice: viz. because they, have no windpipe, this organ itself being absent because fishes do not inhale the air nor yet respire-a fact of which the reason must be discussed elsewhere.

CHAPTER IX.

Smell and its object are less easy to determine than the other senses which we have discussed: we do not see, in fact, what is the specific character of smell so clearly as we do that of sound or colour. The reason of this is that this sense is not developed in us to nearly the same degree of delicacy as it is in other animals. Man's sense of smell is really poor: he never perceives the scent of anything odoriferous unless when it is accompanied by either pleasure or pain-a fact which seems to point to a want of delicate exactness in the organ. It is, we may suppose, with similar limitations that hard-eyed animals perceive colours we may imagine, that is, that they become conscious of the different kinds of colours only in so far as they create fear or its opposite and it is in a correspondingly indirect fashion that men perceive smells. And thus, while the sense of smell is analogous to the sense of taste, and the specific kinds of flavour resemble the different sorts of odour, we possess the sense of taste in a condition of greater perfection, because taste is itself a species of the sense of touch: and in man the sense of touch reaches the greatest sensibility. As regards the other senses, man falls short of many animals: in touch he far surpasses them in the delicacy of his perceptions. Hence also man is the most intelligent of animals. A proof of this is that, within the human species, men are of good or bad natural parts in virtue of this very organ of sense and of no one other sense: the hard-fleshed

δὲ μηδέν· οἱ μὲν γὰρ σκληρόσαρκοι ἀφυεῖς τὴν διάνοιαν, 15 § 3 οἱ δὲ μαλακόσαρκοι εὐφνεῖς. ἔστι δ ̓, ὥσπερ χυμὸς ὁ μὲν γλυκὺς ὁ δὲ πικρός, οὕτω καὶ ὀσμαί. ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν ἔχουσι τὴν ἀνάλογον ὀσμὴν καὶ χυμόν, λέγω δὲ οἷον γλυκεῖαν ὀσμὴν καὶ γλυκὺν χυμόν, τὰ δὲ τοὐναντίον. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ δριμεῖα καὶ αὐστηρὰ καὶ ὀξεῖα καὶ λιπαρά ἐστιν ὀσμή. 30 ἀλλ ̓ ὥσπερ εἴπομεν, διὰ τὸ μὴ σφόδρα διαδήλους εἶναι τὰς ὀσμὰς ὥσπερ τοὺς χυμούς, ἀπὸ τούτων εἴληφε τὰ ὀνό ματα καθ ̓ ὁμοιότητα τῶν πραγμάτων· ἡ μὲν γὰρ γλυκεῖα, 4218 κρόκου καὶ μέλιτος, ἡ δὲ δριμεῖα, θύμου, καὶ τῶν τοιούτων· § 4 τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων. ἔστι δ' ὥσπερ ἡ ἀκοὴ καὶ ἑκάστη τῶν αἰσθήσεων, ἡ μὲν τοῦ ἀκουστοῦ καὶ ἀνηκούστου, ἡ δὲ τοῦ ὁρατοῦ καὶ ἀοράτου, καὶ ἡ ὄσφρη- 5 σις τοῦ ὀσφραντοῦ καὶ ἀνοσφράντου. ἀνόσφραντον δὲ τὸ μὲν παρὰ τὸ ὅλως ἀδύνατον ἔχειν ὀσμήν, τὸ δὲ μικρὰν ἔχον § 5 καὶ φαύλην. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὸ ἄγευστον λέγεται. ἔστι δὲ καὶ ἡ ὄσφρησις διὰ τοῦ μεταξύ, οἷον ἀέρος ἢ ὕδατος· καὶ γὰρ τὰ ἔνυδρα δοκοῦσιν ὀσμῆς αἰσθάνεσθαι. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ το τὰ ἔναιμα καὶ τὰ ἄναιμα, ὥσπερ καὶ τὰ ἐν τῷ ἀέρι· καὶ γὰρ τούτων ἔνια πόρρωθεν ἀπαντᾷ πρὸς τὴν τροφὴν ὕποσμα § 6 γινόμενα. διὸ καὶ ἄπορον φαίνεται, εἰ πάντα μὲν ὁμοίως ὀσμᾶται, ὁ δ ̓ ἄνθρωπος ἀναπνέων μέν, μὴ ἀναπνέων δὲ ἀλλ ̓ ἐκπνέων ἢ κατέχων τὸ πνεῦμα οὐκ ὀσμᾶται, οὔτε 15 πόρρωθεν οὔτ ̓ ἐγγύθεν, οὐδ ̓ ἂν ἐπὶ τοῦ μυκτῆρος ἐντὸς τεθῇ. καὶ τὸ μὲν ἐπ' αὐτῷ τιθέμενον τῷ αἰσθητηρίῳ ἀναίσθητον εἶναι κοινὸν πάντων· ἀλλὰ τὸ ἄνευ τοῦ ἀναπνεῖν μὴ αἰσθά νεσθαι ἴδιον ἐπὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων· δῆλον δὲ πειρωμένοις. ὥστε τὰ ἄναιμα, ἐπειδὴ οὐκ ἀναπνέουσιν, ἑτέραν ἄν τιν' αἴσθησιν

4216 2 2. κρόκου] ἀπὸ τοῦ κρόκου E. Trend. Bekk., ἀπὸ om. STUVWX. τὸ φ. ETUV Tor. 10. ὁμοίως δὲ] δὲ om. ETW, ὁμοίως καὶ ἔναιμα Tor.

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15. ἀλλ' ἐκπνέων om. Wy.

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