further, the conative or desiring-all these being separated by wider differences from one another than are the principle of appetite and that of spirited indignation. : The very opposition of desires itself attests the oneness of the motive faculty. Such opposition happens when the reason and the appetite come together into conflict and displays itself in beings with a sense of time. With such beings, reason, from its perception of the future, enjoins resistance on the mind, while appetite is influenced by a present which is vanishing for that which is momentarily pleasant appears both absolutely pleasant and absolutely good, because the future is unseen. Now, such a conflict of desires requires that the motive agent, the principle of desire, as such, should be specifically but one: and the most primary of all is the object of desire, for this, without being itself moved, creates movement by being made an object of thought or presented before us by imagination. Numerically, however, the motive agents may be several. Now, there are three elements in motion, one being the object which produces movement, the second that by which it moves, and the third the object which is moved. Now, of these three, the object which produces movement is two-fold, being on the one hand itself unmoved, and on the other hand not only moving but also moved. That then which while it produces movement remains itself unmoved is the good as applied to action: the element which at once sets and is set in movement is the faculty of desire (for the subject desiring is moved, in so far as it desires, and desire itself is a form of movement so far as it manifests itself in action): the object which is moved is the living being. As for the organ through which desire produces movement, that is necessarily of corporeal nature: and must therefore be investigated among the functions common to the body and the soul. If we may, however, speak for the present summarily on the subject, that which moves instrumentally must be such that in it beginning and end coincide, as is the case, for instance, with the pivot of a joint: for there both convex and concave meet together, the one acting as end, the other as beginning. Hence, while the one part is at rest, the other is in movement-that is, the two, while different in their purpose or idea, are in real mag ὄντα, μεγέθει δ ̓ ἀχώριστα· πάντα γὰρ ὤσει καὶ ἕλξει κινεῖ- 15 ται. διὸ δεῖ ὥσπερ ἐν κύκλῳ μένειν τι, καὶ ἐντεῦθεν ἄρ§ 9 χεσθαι τὴν κίνησιν. ὅλως μὲν οὖν, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, ᾗ ὀρεκτικὸν τὸ ζῷον, ταύτῃ αὐτοῦ κινητικόν· ὀρεκτικὸν δὲ οὐκ ἄνευ φαντασίας φαντασία δὲ πᾶσα ἢ λογιστικὴ ἢ αἰσθητική. ταύτης μὲν οὖν καὶ τὰ ἄλλα ζῷα μετέχει. 30 ΧΙ. Σκεπτέον δὲ καὶ περὶ τῶν ἀτελῶν, τί τὸ κινοῦν ἐστίν, οἷς ἀφὴ μόνον ὑπάρχει αἴσθησις, πότερον ἐνδέχεται φαν-434 τασίαν ὑπάρχειν τούτοις, ἢ οὔ, καὶ ἐπιθυμίαν. φαίνεται γὰρ λύπη καὶ ἡδονὴ ἐνοῦσα. εἰ δὲ ταῦτα, καὶ ἐπιθυμίαν ἀνάγκη. φαντασία δὲ πῶς ἂν ἐνείη ; ἢ ὥσπερ καὶ κινεῖται ἀορίστως, § 2 καὶ ταῦτ ̓ ἔνεστι μέν, ἀορίστως δ ̓ ἔνεστιν. ἡ μὲν οὖν αἰσθητικὴ ὁ φαντασία, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις ζῴοις ὑπάρ χει, ἡ δὲ βουλευτικὴ ἐν τοῖς λογιστικοῖς· πότερον γὰρ πράξει τόδε ἢ τόδε, λογισμοῦ ἤδη ἐστὶν ἔργον· καὶ ἀνάγκη ἑνὶ μετρεῖν τὸ μεῖζον γὰρ διώκει. ὥστε δύναται ἓν ἐκ πλειόνων φαντασμάτων ποιεῖν. καὶ αἴτιον τοῦτο τοῦ δόξαν μὴ το δοκεῖν ἔχειν, ὅτι τὴν ἐκ συλλογισμοῦ οὐκ ἔχει, αὕτη δὲ ἐκεί 31. ἀτελῶν] ἄλλων L. ἀλόγοις TWy. 7. 434 4. αόριστος LTUVWXy. λογικοῖς WXy. 6. άλλοις ] nitude inseparable: for all movement is the result of impulse or attraction, and there must be therefore always something which remains fixed, like the centre of a circle, as the source from which movement may begin. Generally then it is, as has been said, in so far as the animal is endowed with the faculty of desire that it is capable of moving itself. But no animal can be provided with the faculty of desire unless it have imaginative power. Now, all such power is connected either with the reason or the senses: and in it other animals besides men participate. CHAPTER XI. [Desire then, thus depending on the power of representing images of sense], it falls to us to ask, besides, what is the motive force in those imperfect animals which possess no sense but that of touch, and see whether it is or is not possible for imagination and appetite to belong to them. Pleasure and pain they do indeed evidently feel: and if these belong to them, then appetite, it follows, must be there as well. But it is difficult to see how they can have imagination. Perhaps, however, we may say that just as their movements are vague and indeterminate, so also they possess the powers in question, although merely in a vague and imperfect manner. The simple power of representing images of sense exists, as we have already said, in other animals as well as man. The power, on the contrary, of representing images for deliberation is confined to animals that reason. For the question whether this or that is to be done is work that calls for reason and reflection: and since it is the stronger and the more preferable which desire pursues, it must always measure by one standard, and so it is enabled to form one conception out of several images which represent sensations. Hence the reason why animals, while possessing the faculty of representing images of sense, are not thought to have opinion. They do not possess the kind of desire which forms itself as the conclusion of syllogism, while at the same time such deliberate desire always involves the posses § 3 νην· διὸ τὸ βουλευτικὸν οὐκ ἔχει ἡ ὄρεξις. νικᾷ δ ̓ ἐνίοτε καὶ κινεῖ τὴν βούλησιν· ὁτὲ δ ̓ ἐκείνη ταύτην, ὥσπερ σφαῖρα, ἡ ὄρεξις τὴν ὄρεξιν, ὅταν ἀκρασία γένηται. φύσει δὲ ἀεὶ ἡ ἄνω ἀρχικωτέρα καὶ κινεῖ. ὥστε τρεῖς φορὰς ἤδη κινεῖσθαι. 15 τὸ δ' ἐπιστημονικὸν οὐ κινεῖται, ἀλλὰ μένει. ἐπεὶ δ ̓ ἡ μὲν καθόλου υπόληψις καὶ λόγος, ἡ δὲ τοῦ καθ ̓ ἕκαστα (ἡ μὲν γὰρ λέγει ὅτι δεῖ τὸν τοιοῦτον τὸ τοιόνδε πράττειν, ἡ δὲ ὅτι τόδε τὸ νῦν τοιόνδε, κἀγὼ δὲ τοιόσδε) ἤδη αὕτη κινεῖ ἡ δόξα, οὐχ ἡ καθόλου. ἢ ἄμφω, ἀλλ ̓ ἡ μὲν ἠρεμοῦσα μᾶλ λον, ἡ δ ̓ οὔ. 20 ΧΙΙ. Τὴν μὲν οὖν θρεπτικὴν ψυχὴν ἀνάγκη πᾶν ἔχειν ὅτι περ ἂν ζῇ καὶ ψυχὴν ἔχει ἀπὸ γενέσεως μέχρι φθορᾶς· ἀνάγκη γὰρ τὸ γενόμενον αὔξησιν ἔχειν καὶ ἀκμὴν καὶ φθίσιν, ταῦτα δ ̓ ἄνευ τροφῆς ἀδύνατον· ἀνάγκη ἄρα ἐνεῖναι 15 τὴν θρεπτικὴν δύναμιν ἐν πᾶσι τοῖς φυομένοις καὶ φθίνουσιν. § 2 αἴσθησιν δ ̓ οὐκ ἀναγκαῖον ἐν ἅπασι τοῖς ζῶσιν· οὔτε γὰρ ὅσων τὸ σῶμα ἁπλοῦν, ἐνδέχεται ἁφὴν ἔχειν, (οὔτε ἄνευ ταύτης οἷόν τε οὐθὲν εἶναι ζῷον· οὔτε ὅσα μὴ δεκτικὰ τῶν § 3 εἰδῶν ἄνευ τῆς ὕλης. τὸ δὲ ζῷον ἀναγκαῖον αἴσθησιν ἔχειν, 30 13. ὥσπερ σφαῖραν σφαίρα Tor. || ἡ δ ̓ ὄρεξις τὴν ὄρεξιν. conj. Trend. γένηται] ἐνῆ EL. 19. τὸ νῦν om. LSTUVW. τοίνυν Tor. ELSTUVW. έχη Xy. Trend. Bekk. Η μέχρι] καὶ μέχρι ELW. Tor. 14. 23. έχει sion of opinion: and thus their desire is destitute of any faculty of deliberation. In the case of nian, however, sometimes the images of sense overcome and move the rational volition: sometimes, as in incontinence, two things in turn overcome and stir up one another, desire thus following on desire much as a ball that players toss about: but the normal and natural course is always that in which the superior force of reason is the more supreme, and stimulates to action. Thus, then, altogether there are three courses of movement possible among the springs of action although, it should be added, the cognitive faculty is not moved, but continues permanent. Since, however, this cognitive faculty presents itself, on the one hand, as a conception and judgment about the universal, on the other hand as a conception of the particular-the one asserting that all men of such and such character should do such and such actions, the other explaining that this particular action is of this nature, and that I am an individual of the kind described-it is this latter form of opinion, rather than the universal, that stimulates to action, or it is both of them together, the one, however, more as in repose, the other in activity. CHAPTER XII. Everything that is animate and living must, from its birth to the time of its decay, possess the soul which we describe as nutritive because whatever has been born must exhibit the phenomena of growth, maturity, and dissolution, and this it cannot do apart from food and nourishment. Thus, then, the nutrient capacity must be inherent in all objects that are marked by growth and by decay. Sensation, on the other hand, need not be present in all things that live: for neither can those objects whose body is altogether simple and uncompounded possess the sense of touch (although without this sense it is impossible to have animal life), nor again can those objects which are unable to receive the form without the matter be endowed with the capacity of sense. The animal, however, rightly so-called, must possess the powers |