more nutritive food and a larger proportion of sugar is secured; the roots ripen gently with the warmth of the heap. The labours of the cultivator thus meet with their just reward, by a store of food in that condition, which combines the highest feeding quality with the best preservation, until most needed for use by the stock.

CHAPTER LIX.

SEVERAL varieties of Turnips are cultivated as farm crops, and these differ in character from the quick grown summer produce which is fully matured for use in the autumn, up to the hardy swede, tankard, and hybrid sorts which are needed to stand exposure to severely cold weather. The intermediate gradations are very numerous, and give an abundant choice for meeting the varied requirements of soil, climate, and the time at which they are required for use. Here, as also in the case of the mangel wurzel, there has been too great a tendency to look after rapidity of growth and total weight of crop, rather than the high quality of the produce. If it be remembered that in 100 tons of good turnips we have about 6 tons of actual food, and in 100 tons of good swedes we have about 10 or 11 tons, we shall also be aware of the fact that these small quantities of food are presented to stock in company with enormous quantities of water. So far as the animal is concerned, if

all its supplies of food come to it in this watery condition, we can readily understand that this excessive water supply is very injurious to its health and progress. The whole of this water has to be raised to the temperature of the body, and much of it has to be evaporated from the body; consequently much of the food, instead of giving warmth to the body, or adding fat, is required for dealing with the excessive quantity of water given in the food. If this food is given when it is frozen, it necessarily wastes a further portion of the food. Hence it is that when the swedes or turnips have been so grown that they have this watery character, they are almost valueless as food, and are only useful in helping stock to eat some drier food.

Excessive rapidity of growth is one of the means for producing a heavy weight of almost valueless food, and yet we require an active growth to secure success. In moderation this point of character is most valuable, but in excess it is objectionable. Much of this rapidity of growth has been encouraged, and has been looked upon as a necessity of the case, in the efforts to secure the young plant from the attack of the turnip beetle. Two plans have been adopted to meet this difficulty -namely, a larger quantity of seed, which may secure some plants surviving the attack, and the use of a manure, which makes the young plant grow so fast, that it has time to get its rough leaves formed before it can be eaten up by these turnip beetles. Both of these modes of defence appear weak

and faulty, and hence it is that two other plans have been tried-namely, to draw the early broods away from the fields into a convenient spot in which they can be destroyed, or to sow amongst the crop something they prefer eating. Professor Buckman 1 recommends the former plan, and it has much to commend it to favour. The latter method is very easily carried out by sowing a small quantity of mustard-seed over the field. In either case the young plant has no need to be rushed through its early stages of growth at the usual excessive rate of progress, but is allowed to make that growth under conditions favourable for its healthy development.

This rapid progress is greatly assisted by the use of very soluble manures, which certainly accomplish the rapid formation of the rough leaf. The race of life commenced with such rapidity is not checked when this primary object has been accomplished, but the plant continues its hurried growth until it has been nearly completed. The slower grown plants produced under the opposite system, appear as if they have been left far behind, and some are tempted to exclaim that they will not produce an equally good crop. Suddenly, it may be in consequence of hot weather, those of rapid growth receive a check and the mildew commences its ravages. The numberless minute fungi, of which this white dust consists, establish themselves on the crop, and forthwith draw upon the nourishment cir

1 Science and Practice of Root Cultivation. Hardwicke.

culating in the plant, like millions of small leeches upon animal bodies. The hopes of that crop depend upon a new start being made, which shall enable the plant to throw off its enemies, and continue its progress towards maturity. A fall of rain and deep hoeing of the land may also assist the crop in the effort, but it is an effort which is rarely successful. Meanwhile the slower growing crop has strength to resist the difficulties of the hot season, and its progress is not checked; consequently the mildew does not establish itself. The growth, so well continued, is maintained until the cells have been formed for receiving the richer portions of food, and the food has subsequently been stored in them. In the former case we may have large bulbs, but they sound empty, and float like corks in the water; whilst, in the latter instance, we have bulbs of moderate size, but they are solid and heavy, sinking rapidly in the water. The author recently had an opportunity of testing, comparatively, the specific gravity of some good swedes, with the proportion of available flesh-forming matters they contained. The following results

were obtained:—

With one exception, which admits of explanation, the specific gravity ranged with the feeding power of the swedes.

If we follow out the history of these two systems of growth, whereby we produce swedes and turnips more or less rapidly, we find that when the quick grown roots are exposed to a moderate frost they quickly become rotten, even if they have waited for the frost to act upon them, but the others remain firm and steady, awaiting the demands of the sheep or cattle. Finally, although as yet we have no analyses to prove the fact, the feeding properties of the slower grown bulbs are considerably greater than the others. We must not allow ourselves to be misled in properly recognising the influence of frost, for this differs in intensity. During very severe weather (and that of 1880-1 has been of this character) even solid and well-grown swedes have been destroyed. This is not in any