the habits of exercise, that it is difficult to determine the relative digestibility of different articles of diet. It appears from Dr. Beaumont's researches that, other things being equal, the flesh of wild animals is more easily digested than that of the allied domesticated races; in this respect venison stands first, then turkey, then beef, mutton, and veal, in the order mentioned. A certain bulk of food is necessary for healthy digestion, as has long been practically known by uncivilized nations; soups and fluid aliment are not more readily chymified than solid substances, and cannot alone support the system in vigor. Moderate exercise before a meal facilitates digestion. A temperature of 98° to 100° F. is requisite for the perfect action of the gastric juice; hence the ingestion of cold and iced substances, if carried to such an extent as to depress the temperature of the stomach, must be very prejudicial to digestion. The most recent experiments go to show that the action of the gastric juice is confined to nitrogenized substances, and that it exerts no influence on starchy, saccharine, or oily matters. Its action on albuminous matters is to reduce them to a complete solution, alter their chemical properties, and convert them into albuminose (a kind of modified albumen), in which form they are readily assimilated. In this condition they form definite combinations with the solvent liquid, which have been called peptones. These are not mere solutions of the respective substances in acidulated fluids; for a converting power is exerted by the pepsin, the solvent power being due to the acid of the gastric juice. The process of digestion is far from being completed in the stomach, but goes on in the intestine by the continued action of the gastric juice, as well as by that of the pancreatic and intestinal juices. Of these, the intestinal juice seems to have the power of rapidly transforming starchy matters into a form of sugar, while the pancreatic juice, on coming in contact with the fatty elements of the food, converts them into a finely divided milky-looking emulsion, known as chyle. All these substances, the fluid products of digestion, are then gradually taken up by the blood vessels and lacteals of the alimentary canal, and mingled with the general mass of the circulating fluid; until in the lower part of the intestine there are left only the indigestible and refuse parts of the food, mingled with the excrementitious substances of the large intestine. (See ALIMENT, ALIMENTARY CANAL, and DIETETICS.)

DIGGES. I. Leonard, an English mathematician, born in the parish of Barham, Kent, died about 1574. He was educated at Oxford, possessed an ample fortune, and devoted himself to mathematical studies. He wrote "Tectonicum, briefly showing the exact Measuring and speedy Reckoning of all manner of Lands, Squares, Timber, Stones, Steeples, &c." (1556); Pantometria, a practical geometrical treatise (1591); and "Prognostication Everlasting of

right good effect, or Choice Rules to judge the Weather by the Sun, Moon, and Stars" (1555). II. Thomas, son of the preceding, died in 1595. He graduated at Oxford, adopted the profession of a soldier, and was appointed mustermaster general of the forces sent out by Elizabeth to assist the Netherlands. He wrote several mathematical treatises and other works, among which are: Ala, seu Scala Mathematica (1573); "A Letter on Parallax" (1573); and "A Perfect Description of the Celestial Orbs according to the most ancient Doctrine of the Pythagoreans" (1592).

DIGITALIS, a genus of exogenous plants belonging to the natural order scrophulariacea. Digitalis purpurea (Linn.), purple foxglove, is a small herb found wild in Europe about hedges on banks of streams, in a gravelly or sandy soil. Calyx 5-parted, unequal; corolla campanulate, the limbs obliquely 4-lobed; stamens 4; stigma simple; capsule ovate-acumi

nate; root of numerous long slender fibres, biennial; stem erect, 3 or 4 ft. high, commonly simple roundish with slight angles, downy; leaves dull green, alternate, ovatelanceolate or elliptic-oblong, crenate, downy, rugged, and veiny, tapering at the base into winged footstalks, lower ones largest; raceme terminal, long, simple, of numerous large, pendulous, odorless flowers. Fuchs is regarded as the earliest botanist who mentions this plant, which he named digitalis (Germ. Fingerhut, thimble), on account of the blossoms resembling the finger of a glove. The term foxe-glove occurs in a MS. Glossarium Elfrica, written before the Norman conquest, and in a MS. Saxon translation of Apuleius, both of which are among the Cotton MSS. in the British museum; but no Latin or Greek name was given to this plant previous to Fuchs in 1542.-This beautiful plant derives its chief interest from its medicinal properties, which reside in the leaves and seeds, the latter being small, round

ish, and grayish brown. Its active principle is digitaline, a yellowish bitter, uncrystallizable powder, neither acid nor alkaline, only sightly soluble in water and ether, but very soluble in alcohol. Unfortunately for medicolegal ends, it has no very well marked reactions, and in one case of criminal poisoning the evidence of its use consisted chiefly in the fact that a substance extracted from the stomach and ejecta of the person killed produced in animals, when given to them, symptoms resembling those produced by digitalis. The effect of digitalis has been tried on dogs, horses, rabbits, turkeys, domestic fowl, and frogs, and on all it has been found to act as a poison. The cerebro-spinal symptoms observed in animals are diminished muscular power, convulsive movements, tremors, and insensibility. When given in small doses to man, it is found to exercise a remarkable influence over the circulation, frequently reducing the pulse from 70 or 80 to 40 or 50 beats in the minute. According to recent views, the beats of the heart, although retarded by digitalis, are rendered more vigorous by it, and at the same time the smaller arteries are contracted, so that their tension is maintained, and in some diseases increased, in spite of the slow pulse. The therapeutic effects of digitalis, including its diuretic action, depend almost wholly upon the improved tone of the heart and blood vessels which it brings about. Small doses of it in health generally, but not always, increase the water of the urine to a slight degree, the solids undergoing but little change. When poisonous doses are approximated, the force of the heart and tension of the arteries fall, and the pulse becomes first irregular, and afterward rapid. Nausea and vomiting are early toxic symptoms. It should be borne in mind that a toxic condition may be suddenly developed during the use of digitalis as a medicine, in consequence of its accumulation in the system. Its undoubted beneficial effects in organic diseases of the heart can in most cases be best attained and preserved by keeping the dose strictly within the limits of what has just been described as the first stage of its action; that is, the stage in which the tension of the blood vessels is maintained. Digitalis is used chiefly in organic diseases of the heart, to fulfil indications suggested above. Its effect in dropsies, and possibly in some nervous affections, is secondary. The infusion, tincture, leaves in powder, and granules of digitaline are all used in medicine. Its effects may also be obtained by the application to the abdominal surface of cloths steeped in an infusion of it. The dose of the infusion is about a tablespoonful; of the powdered leaves, a grain; of the tincture, 10 to 15 drops; of digitaline, of a grain. Large quantities of digitalis are quite inert, either from too long keeping or from having been taken from immature plants. DIGITIGRADES, the tribe of the typical carnivora, so called because they walk on the

ends of the toes, as distinguished from the plantigrades, which, like the bear, place the whole foot upon the ground. This tribe includes the mustelida or weasels, the canida or dogs, and the felida or cats. All have the cheek teeth with cutting edges, the lower shutting within the upper, dividing the flesh of their prey like the blades of scissors. As their food would indicate, they have a simple stomach and a short intestine. Their carnivorous propensity may be measured by the tubercle or heel on the lower carnivorous tooth, and the number of false molars in front and of tuberculous teeth behind it; those having the simplest carnivorous teeth, and the fewest molars in front and behind, like the cats and the weasels, are the most sanguinary. The characteristic marks in the skeleton are the long metacarpus and metatarsus, the elevation of the os calcis, and the shortness of the phalanges which alone rest upon the ground; and in the cats, the retractile claws. The extremities are formed for leaping and springing; from the pelvis as the fixed point, the three portions of the limbs are movable in alternately opposite directions; by the simultaneous flexion of these joints, and their sudden extension by powerful muscles, the greatest force is given to the spring, the elevated and elongated heel affording the principal mechanical advantage in the digitigrade foot.

DIGNE (anc. Dinia), a town of Provence, France, capital of the department of BassesAlpes, situated near the Bléone, 69 m. N. N. E. of Marseilles; pop. in 1866, 7,002. It is the seat of a Catholic bishop, a court of the first resort, a communal college, a theological seminary, and a normal school. It has a public library of about 3,000 volumes, and manufactories of leather, cloth, and hats. Its situation is picturesque, but the streets are crooked, and the houses very poor. In 1629 the plague reduced the population from 10,000 to 1,500.

DIJON (anc. Divio), a town of France, formerly capital of the duchy of Burgundy, now of the department of Côte-d'Or, situated at the confluence of the rivers Ouche and Suzon, on the railway from Paris to Lyons, 160 m. S. E. of Paris; pop. in 1866, 39,193. It is of an oval form, with several suburbs, and lies at the foot of a chain of mountains in a fertile vale. It is generally well built, has numerous handsome public places and elegant houses, is enclosed by ramparts, and its environs furnish delightful promenades. It contains many remarkable buildings, the principal of which are the cathedral, formerly the Cistercian abbey of St. Benigne, a massive edifice founded in 535 and rebuilt in the 12th century, and again in the 13th, which contains the magnificent mausoleums of Philip the Bold and of John the Fearless; the church of Notre Dame, built in the 13th and 14th centuries; the church of St. Michael, which dates from the 16th century, remarkable for its front and its castle-like solidity; an ancient castle, the work

of Louis XI., which served for a time in the 18th century as the prison of the duchess de Maine, Mirabeau, and the chevalier d'Eon; and the ancient palace of the dukes of Burgundy, subsequently the palais des états, now occupied partly as a town hall and partly as a museum of painting and sculpture, containing numerous relics of the middle ages, and a library of 70,000 printed volumes and 800 to 900 MSS. The tower is now used as an observatory. The hall of justice, an ancient edifice, was the parliament house of Burgundy. The theatre is one of the finest in France. Dijon is the seat of a bishop and of courts of appellate and original jurisdiction. It is well provided with benevolent and educational in

Cathedral of Dijon.

stitutions, including two hospitals, an orphan asylum, two prisons, a cabinet of natural history, a botanic garden, a university with 16 professors and faculties of law, science, and literature, eight colleges, a normal school, and schools of fine arts and medicine. It has manufactories of linens, hosiery, vinegar, and candles, distilleries, bleacheries, sugar and wax refineries, tanneries, breweries, and establishments for the manufacture of liqueur de cassis or black-currant wine. It is the principal market for the sale of Burgundy wines, and there is also a large trade in grain, flour, and wool. The origin of Dijon is traced back to times preceding the Roman dominion. Under Marcus Aurelius it was surrounded by walls flanked with towers, and it was embellished

and enlarged by Aurelian. It was burned by the Saracens in the 8th century, sacked by the Normans in the 9th, and again ravaged by fire in 1127. It was for three centuries the residence of the dukes of Burgundy, by whom its present fortifications were constructed. In 1513 it was besieged by the Swiss, and saved itself only by a humiliating treaty. On Oct. 30, 1870, there was a sharp encounter between a division of the German corps of Gen. Von Werder and the advance troops of the French army of Lyons, which led on the next day to the capitulation of the town and its occupation by the Germans. On the approach of the army of Bourbaki the town was evacuated by the Germans, Dec. 27. On Jan. 21 and 23, 1871, severe fighting again took place near Dijon between the Garibaldians and portions of the second German army corps; the latter were finally compelled to retreat, leaving behind them a flag, the only one lost in the war. Dijon is the birthplace of some of the most eminent men of France, including Bossuet, Crébillon the elder, Piron, Cazotte, Guyton de Morveau, and Maret, duke of Bassano.

DIKE (Dutch, dijk, from the root of dig). I. Primarily a ditch, but now more commonly a wall or embankment intended to restrain the flow of water. Such earthworks were in former times a common means of defence, and were built around castles and fortresses. In Holland are the most remarkable dikes in the world, constructed to prevent the overflow of the lands reclaimed from the sea. Their importance may be appreciated from the fact that a single inundation from the sea in the year 1277 caused the destruction of 44 villages; and in 1287 80,000 persons were destroyed by another, and its present extent and shape were given to the Zuyder Zee. In the 15th century about 100,000 persons were destroyed through the imperfection of the dikes, when their construction was undertaken in the most thorough manner, and a law was enacted enforcing their being kept in order. At present this work is conducted on a systematic plan and at great cost. Embankments are made toward the sea with heavy timbers filled in with stone, and the surface is covered with bundles of flags and reeds fastened down by stakes. Piles also are driven into the sand, and protected by planking as well as by earth, turf, and stones. These artificial dikes are often 40 ft. above ordinary high water, and wide enough at top for a common roadway. Frequently the slopes are covered with wickerwork made of willow twigs, and the willow tree is extensively cultivated to furnish supplies of these, which require frequent renewal, as also to bind together by its roots the loose sands. Walls of masonry are built in some of the most exposed situations, and rows of piles outside protect the dikes from the action of the waves. The expenditure in Holland for maintaining dikes and regulating the water levels is annually from $2,000,000 to $2,500,000. Engineers are constantly employed,