the "Guide to the Game of Draughts," by Joshua Sturges (London, 1800), of which an improved edition appeared in 1835, the whole of which, with additions, is comprised in the 'Handbook of Games" which forms one of the volumes of "Bohn's Scientific Library" (London, 1850). 66 DRAVE (Ger. Drau; Hung. Dráva; anc. Dravus), a river of Austria, one of the principal tributaries of the Danube, rises from two sources in the E. portion of the Tyrol. In its upper part it is small and extremely rapid, with craggy and overhanging banks, but it be comes navigable at Villach, and flows E. and S. E. with a slow current through a low and marshy country, through Carinthia and Styria, then along the S. border of Hungary, which it separates from Croatia and Slavonia, till it enters the Danube E. of Eszék, as a large and powerful stream, after a course of 360 m. Its navigation above Völkermarkt is obstructed by various falls and cataracts. The most important of its numerous affluents is the Mur, the largest river in Styria. Lienz in Tyrol, Villach, Marburg, Pettau, Warasdin, and Eszék are among the chief towns on its banks. Fish are plentiful in its waters, and some gold is washed from its sands. The valleys along its course are remarkable for their fertility. The Hungarian peasants descend this river on rafts of empty barrels after having disposed of their wine in the mountains of Carinthia. DRAVIDAS. See ETHNOLOGY, p. 758. ward, as is done in the Polish game. The modern Egyptians, who use pieces similar to those used by their predecessors, play the game as it is generally played in Europe and America. By the Greeks the invention of draughts, as well as of dice and many other things, was poetically ascribed to Palamedes, one of the heroes of the expedition against Troy.-In playing draughts, the board is placed with a double corner on the right hand of each player. Each player places his pieces on the three lines of squares nearest to him. In England the white squares are played upon; in Scotland and America the black squares are generally selected. The game is begun by each player moving alternately one of his men along the diagonal on which they are first placed, one square at a time to the right or the left. When two hostile pieces encounter each other, the one that has the move may take the other, if there be a vacant square of the color played upon behind it, by leaping over the other into that square. The piece leaped over is removed from the board. If several pieces should be exposed by having alternate open squares behind them, they may all be taken at once, and the taking piece placed on the square behind the last piece captured. When a piece has reached one of the four squares of the extreme opposite row, it becomes a king, and is crowned by placing one of the captured pieces upon it, or, as the men are now sometimes made, by turning it over and exposing a crown represented on the other side. Kings can move backward as well as forward, though only one square at a time. The principal laws of the game are these: If a piece is touched, it must be moved, if a move be possible; the player who has the move must take a piece which is exposed to capture; if he neglects to take it, his adversary may remove from the board the piece with which the capture should have been made; but a player has no right to decline to take under any circumstances. The first move of each game is to be taken by the players in turn; if lots are drawn for the move, he who gains the choice may move first or require his adversary to move. In Polish draughts, a variety of the game played not only in Poland, but in other parts of the continent of Europe, and sometimes in England and America, the pieces are moved forward as in the English form of the game, but in taking they move like the kings of the English game, either backward or forward. The kings in the Polish game have the privilege of passing over several squares at one time, and even over the whole length of the diagonal when no pieces obstruct the move. Polish draughts is sometimes played with 40 pieces on a board divided into 100 squares.-M. Mallet, a professor of mathematics, published a treatise on draughts at Paris in 1668. Another teacher of mathe-tangular box, with its sides parallel to the matics, William Paine, published at London in 1756 an "Introduction to the Game of Draughts." The best work on the subject is DRAWING, the representation or delineation of objects, either as they appear to the eye, or as projected on assumed planes, or as designated by conventional signs having a certain similarity to the appearance of the objects themselves. The painter, with free hand, draws or sketches objects in their visible and natural forms; the mechanical or architectural draughtsman projects, according to certain established rules and principles, objects existing or designed; while from the notes of the surveyor the topographical draughtsman plots the surface of a field or locality, with its natural and artificial objects represented somewhat as they would appear projected on a transparent plane above them, but with certain conventionalities to express more definitely certain features. Architectural and mechanical drawing is in general the delineation of objects by geometric or orthographic projection. Since the surfaces of all bodies may be considered to be composed of points, the first step is to represent the position of a point in space, by referring it to planes whose position is established. In general these planes are assumed at right angles to each other (fig. 1), and the points projected upon them make up the drawings of the plan, end and side elevation. Let a brick be held flatwise in the corner of a rec various sides of the box; if now from the several corners of the brick perpendiculars be let fall upon the adjacent sides, the points thus or those intended to be used in construction, are generally laid off to as large a scale as possible; they are mostly outline drawings, consisting of lines to indicate the form of the object represented. The roundness, fulness, or obliquity of the individual surfaces is not indicated by the lines, although it may be generally inferred from the relation of the different views of the same part. The direct significance of an outline drawing is often considerably increased by strengthening those lines which indicate the contours of surfaces resting in the shadow. That all parts may be shade-lined according to one uniform rule, the light is supposed to fall upon the object obliquely at an angle of 45° (that the horizontal and vertical lines may be relieved equally), and in general (fig. 2) to fall from the upper lefthand corner of the paper diagonally; and the same rule is followed in the more finished drawings where both shade and shadow are introduced. As a means of avoiding the indefiniteness presented by mere outline, recourse is frequently had to the shading of the parts of a machine or edifice, which is usually done with color and a brush. In architectural drawings, a complete picture is often attempted with all the appliances of shade and shadow, intended to show the artistic effect of the construction. Color is introduced in both mechanical and architectural drawings, to show the material of which the construction is composed; and it is usual to imitate somewhat the Elevation. Light. Plan. natural color of the substances.--Besides orthographic projection, architects, for the representation both of exterior and interior of edifices, often make use of perspective; and mechanical draughtsmen, for the better understanding of the parts of a machine than by separate plans and elevations, unite them by the rules of isometrical drawing. The science of perspective is the representation by geometrical rules, on a plane surface, of objects as they appear to the eye from an assumed point of view. All the points of the surface of a body are visible by means of luminous rays proceeding from these points to the eye, forming a cone of rays. The intersection of these rays by an intervening transparent plane is the perspective projection of these points, the rules for the projection of which mechani rectangle 8 by 24 in., the side elevation; on the other side, a rectangle 4 by 24 in., the end elevation. If the brick be inclined to either or all of the sides of the box, the projected outlines will be varied; but the same rule for determining the position of points obtains, viz. by letting fall perpendiculars on the planes to which they are referred. The orthographic projection of any object in outline is the shadow it would cast on a plane perpendicular to the rays of the sun, if held between it and the sun. Simple objects in general may be defined by two views, a plan and elevation; but often, to illustrate the construction of the interior, sections are necessary, that is, the appearances that might be presented were the objects cut by planes; all portions that would be thus absolutely cut are designated by filling up the outline with a quantity of inclined parallel straight lines, at equal intervals from each other; should there be distinct parts in section, in contact with each other, to prevent confusion the different sections are expressed by lines inclined in opposite directions. In most architectural and mechanical constructions it would be obviously impossible that they could be drawn full size. Scales are therefore made use of in which fractional parts represent wholes. The scale in most common use in architectural drawings is that of one fourth of an inch to the foot, or of the lineal dimensions; in mechanical drawings, one fourth or one eighth full size, that is, as usually understood, one fourth or one eighth of the lineal dimensions. Working drawings of machines, Light. FIG. 2. tances as in orthographic projection, but only upon these lines, or those parallel thereto. Curved or inclined lines are therefore to be cally are simple and well established. The supposed transparent plane is called the plane of projection or plane of the picture. The horizon of the picture is the horizontal line re-established by reference to these lines, and not sulting from the intersection of the plane of the picture by a horizontal plane passing through FIG. 8. Vanishing Point. the eye. Point of view or point of sight is the point where the eye is supposed to be placed. Vanishing points are points in a picture to which all lines converge that in the object are parallel to each other. An object is said to be in parallel perspective when one of its sides is parallel to the plane of the picture (fig. 3); in angular perspective when none of its sides are so. Isometrical drawing implies that the measures of the representations of the lines forming the sides of each face are equal. The principle of isometrical projection consists in selecting for the plane of the projection one equally inclined to three principal axes at right angles to each other, so that all straight lines coincident or parallel to these axes are drawn in projection to the same scale. To draw a cube in isometrical projection (fig. 4), with a radius equal to one side of the cube, describe a circle, inscribe FIG. 4. a regular hexagon, and draw lines from alternate angles to the centre; the hexagon will be divided into three parallelograms, each of which will represent a face of the cube; all the lines will be equal, and equal to the side of the cube. On these lines can be set off dis by direct measure of the lines themselves. Isometrical drawing is especially valuable to the mechanical draughtsman, as it embraces the applicability of a scale with pictorial representation. In drawings for the patent office it is of very general application.—Topographical drawing is the delineation of the surface of a locality (fig. 5), with the natural and artificial objects, as houses, roads, rivers, hills, &c., upon it, in their relative dimensions and positions; giving in miniature a copy of the field, farm, district, &c., as it would be seen by the eye moving over it. Many of the objects thus to be represented can be defined by regular and mathematical lines, but many other objects, from their irregularity of outline and their insignificance in extent, would be very difficult to distinguish. Certain signs have therefore been adopted into general use among draughtsmen, some of which resemble in some degree the objects for which they stand, while others are purely conventional. Sand is represented by fine dots, gravel by coarser dots; meadow or grass land is represented by tufts of little perpendicular lines; trees, although not consonant with the other parts of the plan, are represented often in elevation, at other times by clumps of foliage in plan, sometimes distinctive in their foliage; dwellings and edifices usually in plan, made distinctive by some small prefix, as a pair of scales for a court house, a sign post for a tavern, a horse shoe for a smithy, a church with a cross or steeple, &c. The localities of mines are represented by the signs of the planets which were anciently associated with various metals, and a black circle or dot for coal. Hills are represented by two methods, the vertical and the horizontal. In the first the strokes of the pen follow the course the water would take in running down the slopes, the strokes being made heavier the steeper the inclination; and systems have been proposed and used by which the inclination is defined by the comparative thickness of the line and the intervening spaces. In the system proposed for the United States coast survey, slopes of 75° are represented by a proportion of black to white of 9 to 2, and so down by nine grades to a slope of 24°, in which the proportion is 1 black to 10 white. By the horizontal method, or by contours, hills are represented by horizontal lines traced round them, such as would be shown on the ground by water rising by equal vertical stages. The choice of a scale for a plot depends in a great measure on the purpose for which the plan is intended. Plans of house lots are usually named as being so many feet to the inch, plots of surveys so many chains to the inch, maps or surveys of states so many miles to the inch, and maps of railway surveys as so many feet to the inch, or so many inches to the mile. In the coast survey all the scales are expressed frac are used conventionally. Thus, in the practice of the French military engineers, woods are represented by yellow gamboge with a very little indigo; grass land green, gamboge and indigo; cultivated land brown, lake, gamboge, and a little India ink or burnt sienna, adjoining fields being slightly varied in tint; gardens, by patches of green and brown; uncultivated land, marbled green and light brown; brush, brambles, &c., marbled green and yellow; vineyards, purple; sands, a light brown; lakes and rivers, a light blue; seas, a dark blue, with a little yellow added; roads, brown; hills, greenish brown. In addition to the conventional colors, a sort of imitation of the conventional signs already explained is introduced with the brush, and shadows are almost invariably introduced. Topographical drawings receive the light, the same as architectural and mechanical drawings, from the upper left-hand corner. Hills are shaded, not as they would appear in nature, but on the conventional system of making the slopes darker in proportion to their steepness, the summit of the highest ranges being left white. Topographical draw tionally and decimally. The scales of small harbor charts vary from 1: 5,000 to 1: 60,000; that of charts of bays and sounds is usually 1 to 80,000, of general coast charts 1 to 400,000. In the United States engineer service the following scales are prescribed: general plans of building, 1: 120; maps of ground with horizontal curves, 1: 600; topographical maps comprising 1 mile square, 1 m. to 2 ft., or 1: 2,640; 3 miles square, 1: 5,280; between 4 and 8 miles, 1 : 10,560; 9 miles square, 1: 15,840; not exceeding 24 miles square, 1:31,680; 50 miles square, 1: 63,360; 100 miles square, 1: 126,720; surveys of roads and canals, 1: 600. In the plotting of sections, as of railway cuttings, a horizontal or base line is drawn, on which are laid off the stations or distances at which levels have been taken; at these points perpendiculars or ordinates are erected, and upon them are marked the heights of ground above base, and the marks are joined by straight lines. To express rock in a cut, it is generally represented by parallel inclined lines; rivers by horizontal lines, or better colored in blue; the depth of sounding in a mud bottom by a mass of dots. Since it would be in general impossi-ings embrace but a small portion of surface, ble to express the variations of the surface of the ground in the same scale as that adopted for the plan, it is usual to make the vertical scale larger than that of the horizontal lines in the proportion of 10 or 20 to 1.-Topographical features are represented as effectively by the brush and water colors as by the pen. Colors and are therefore plotted directly from measures; but in geographical maps, embracing at times a great extent of country, various projections are made use of to express as nearly as possible a spherical surface upon a plane. These species of projection are generally included under the head of mapping. DRAYTON, Michael, an English poet, born in Hartshill, Warwickshire, in 1563, died in 1631. His life is involved in obscurity, and various unauthentic accounts of him are given. He is supposed to have studied at Cambridge. In 1626 he was poet laureate. He found patrons in Sir Walter Aston and the earl of Dorset, but he never became wealthy or powerful, though respected for his virtues and talent. It is not easy to discover the order of his various poems, some of which were published without date. The best known is his "Polyolbion," a descriptive poem on England, her legends, antiquities, and productions, the first 18 books of which were published in 1613, and the whole 30 in 1622. Among his other works are "The Harmony of the Church, containing the spiritual Songs and holy Hymns of godly Men, Patriarchs, and Prophets" (4to, 1591, only one copy of which edition is known to exist; and 8vo, London, 1843, edited by Dyce); "Idea, the Shepherd's Garland, and Rowland's Sacrifice to the Nine Muses" (4to, 1593), the second of which was reissued under the title of "Pastorals;" "Mortimeriados " (4to, 1596), reprinted under the title of "The Barons' Wars;" "England's Heroical Epistles" (Svo, 1598); "The Legend of Great Cromwell" (4to, 1607); "Battle of Agincourt" (folio, 1627); "The Muses' Elysium" (4to, 1630); numerous legends, sonnets, &c., mostly printed in collections; and "Nymphidia, the Court of Fairy," edited by Sir E. Brydges (Kent, 1814). The last is one of his most admirable productions. His historical poems are dignified, full of fine descriptions, and rich in true poetic spirit, and his "Poly-olbion" is moreover so accurate as to be quoted as authority by antiquaries. Notes to the first portion of it were written by Selden. He was buried in Westminster abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. An edition of his works, with a historical essay on his life and writings, was published in 1752-'3 (4 vols. 8vo, London). DRAYTON, William Henry, an American statesman, born at Drayton hall, on Ashley river, S. C., in September, 1742, died in Philadelphia in September, 1779. He was educated in England at Westminster school, and at Balliol college, Oxford. Returning to America in 1764, he became an active writer on political affairs, on the side of the government. In 1771, after revisiting England, he was appointed privy councillor for the province of South Carolina; but as the revolutionary crisis approached he espoused the popular cause. In 1774 he was appointed judge of the province, and when the continental congress was about to sit he published a pamphlet under the signature of "A Freeman," which substantially marked out the line of conduct pursued by that body. Suspended from his offices under the crown, he was made a member of the popular committee of safety, and was prominent in advising the seizure of the provincial arsenals and British mails. In 1775 he was president of the pro | vincial congress, and in 1776 was elected chief justice of South Carolina. He soon after delivered a charge to the grand jury on the question of independence, which was published throughout the colonies and had great influence. He had produced several other political charges and pamphlets, when in 1778 he was elected a delegate to the continental congress, of which he was a prominent member till his death. He left a minute narrative of the preliminary and current events of the revolution, which was prepared for the press and published by his son, Gov. John Drayton (2 vols. 8vo, Charleston, 1821). DREAM, the thoughts or series of thoughts which occupy the mind during sleep. Locke expresses the opinion that we do not always think when we sleep; but most modern philosophers, following Plato and the Platonists, are agreed that the mind is never dormant, but that consciousness continues uninterruptedly during sleep. Leibnitz rejects Locke's position, and Kant maintains that we always dream when asleep; that to cease to dream would be to cease to live, and that those who fancy they have not dreamed have only forgotten their dream. Sir William Hamilton argues that the mind is never wholly inactive, and that we are never entirely unconscious of its activity. He quotes from Jouffroy as follows: "I have never well understood those who admit that in sleep the mind is dormant. When we dream, we are assuredly asleep, and assuredly also our mind is not asleep, because it thinks; it is therefore manifest that the mind frequently wakes when the senses are in slumber. But this does not prove that it never sleeps along with them. To sleep is for the mind not to dream; and it is impossible to establish the fact that there are in sleep moments in which the mind does not dream. To have no recollection of our dreams does not prove that we have not dreamed; for it can often be proved that we have dreamed, although the dream has left no trace on our memory." Dreams, no less than our waking thoughts, are dependent on the laws of association, and the senses may be considered as the media through which the spirit within is brought into contact with the external world. Although in sleep the senses generally are torpid, some of them continue to transmit to the mind imperfect sensations which they receive. Of the five external senses, sight is the least excitable during sleep; and next in order, in proportion to their degree of excitability, come taste, smell, hearing, and touch; the last being the most excitable, and causing or modifying dreams oftener than any of the others. Dr. Gregory, having applied a bottle of hot water to his feet on going to bed, dreamed that he was making a journey to Mount Etna, and found the heat insufferable. Dr. Reid, having had a blister put upon his head, dreamed that he was scalped by Indians. M. Giron de Buzereingues made a series of experiments to test how far he could determine |