faith in him," were the words of his sermon at the Boston lecture in 1731; and three years later he enforced at large that it is a doctrine of reason that "a divine supernatural light is immediately imparted to the soul by the Spirit of God." He teaches that knowledge of spiritual truth cannot be derived from the senses; it is a wisdom not earthly or natural, but descending from above; "it is the image and participation of God's own knowledge of himself." In like manner he finds the idea of causality "implanted by God in the minds of all mankind." As a consequence, the contrast of Edwards with Locke and those who came after him appears equally in the different manner in which they sought to establish the truth of Christianity. The disciples of Locke's phimiracles as the principal proof of the Christian religion. Edwards, on the contrary, laid down the principle that "no particular sort of outward representations can be any evidence of a divine power." "Unless men may come to a reasonable, solid persuasion and conviction of the truth of the gospel, by the internal evidences of it, by a sight of its glory, it is impossible that those who are illiterate and unacquainted with history should have any thorough and effectual conviction of it at all." "It is unreasonable to suppose that God has provided for his people no more than probable evidences of the truth of the gospel. It is reasonable to suppose that God would give the greatest evidence of those things which are greatest, and the truth of which is of the greatest importance to us. But it is certain that such an assurance is not to be attained, by the greater part of them who live under the gospel, by arguments fetched from ancient traditions, histories, and monuments."-The theory of Edwards respecting providence corresponded with that of Leibnitz. To him the laws of nature were not established and left to themselves, but were the methods according to which God continued his "immediate influence." "His preserving created things in being is equivalent to a continued creation." The presence of moral evil, the depravity of human nature, he considered from two points of view. He raised his mind to the contemplation of God as the Creator, and had then no theory to offer for man's depravity but the divine will. He never presumed to ask Almighty God why it was so. But to those who questioned this absolute sovereignty, and rejected it as a doctrine full of horror, he made a twofold answer, not as finding excuses for the Creator, but subjectively as shutting the mouth of cavillers: First, that man's depravity is an unquestionable fact; that through the medium of his senses and merely animal organization man can attain to no knowledge of God and no spiritual perfection. Secondly, he set forth the unity of the race; its common constitution as branches from one root, forming one complex person, one moral whole; smallpox was prevailing in the neighborhood, | and he was inoculated; but the disease took an unfavorable turn, and he died 34 days after his installation, at the age of 54. In 1872 his descendants erected to his memory at Stockbridge a monument of red granite, 25 ft. high.-In considering the writings of Jonathan Edwards, the first thing to be borne in mind is his unquestioning acceptance of the truth of the Holy Scriptures, of every event recorded there, every miracle, and every prophecy; the actual fall of man, the incarnation, death, resurrection, and ascension of Christ. The next is, the intensity of his attachment to the system of Calvinism as opposed to that of Arminianism. These points being premised, the characteristics of all that Edwards has written are threefold. He looks always to establish the reason-losophy cling to the historical evidence from ableness of his views. The doctrine of a divine incarnation, for example, approves itself, as he thought, to human reason; and he cites in proof the authority of Greeks and Romans, the most philosophical nations of the world, and refers to the anima mundi of Blount and the pantheism of Spinoza. He scoffs at the pretensions to greater liberality of the Arminians, and puts reason and common sense on the side of orthodoxy. He thought there was no need that the strict philosophic truth should be at all concealed. The clear and full knowledge of the true system of the universe will greatly establish the doctrines which teach the true Christian scheme of divine administration in the city of God." Least of all would Edwards give up the individual right of free inquiry, for he says: "He who believes principles because our forefathers affirm them, inakes idols of them; and it would be no humility, but baseness of spirit, for us to judge ourselves incapable of examining principles which have been handed down to us." He knows no scheme of Christianity that is the fruit of time; the divine administration began from eternity and reaches forward to eternity. The third great feature of his mind is its practical character. His system has in view life and action; he puts aside all merely speculative questions, and while he discusses the greatest topics, it is only because of his overwhelming consciousness of their important bearing on conduct and morals. He moves in the real world, and brings theology down from the dim clouds of speculation to the business and the bosoms of the universal people. It is a strange misconception about Edwards, that he drew his philosophy from Locke. In the want of books, the essay of Locke trained him to philosophical meditation; but his system was, at its foundation and in every part, the very opposite of the theory of Locke. On the subject of the origin of ideas he accords with Leibnitz. The doctrine that all truth is derived from sensation and reflection he discards. The knowledge of spiritual truth he considers "a new principle," ," "the divine nature in the soul." "It is the Spirit of God that gives the earth. The development of this idea employed the latest thoughts of Edwards, though his "History of Redemption " is only a sketch of the great work which he planned.-Edwards makes a turning point in the intellectual, or, as he would have called it, the spiritual history of New England. New England and New Jersey, in the age following him, applied more thought to the subject of religious philosophy and systematic theology than the same amount of population in any other part of the world; and his influence is discernible on every leading mind. Bellamy and Hopkins were his pupils; Dwight was his expositor; Smalley, Emmons, and many others were his followers; · through Hopkins his influence reached Kirkland, and assisted in moulding the character of Channing. Edwards sums up the old theology of New England, and is the fountain head of the new.-There are several lives of Jonathan Edwards. The most interesting is that by Hopkins, who was his pupil; the fullest is that by Sereno Edwards Dwight. There have been two editions of his works in England, one in 8 vols. 8vo, and one in two compact volumes. The American editions are to be preferred. One was published at Worcester, Mass., edited by Samuel Austin, in 1809, in 8 vols. The New York edition is by Sereno E. Dwight, in 10 vols. 8vo, of which the first contains the life. There is also a later and convenient New York edition in 4 vols. which is the view of Augustine and Calvin. | gives unity to the history of all the nations of This view also had a most important bearing on the theory of morals. The momentous question of man's relation to moral evil, and the way of his escape from it, formed one of the chief objects of Edwards's thoughts during his whole life. "Men in a very proper sense may be said to have power to abstain from sin, because it depends on the will;" and if they will not, the defect is in themselves; yet a man's evil disposition may be as strong and immovable as the bars of a castle. The law of causality extends to every action. Liberty consists in the power of doing what one wills, not in any power of willing without a motive. The will always follows the greatest seeming good; and what shall seem to a man the greatest good depends on the state of his soul. Liberty is not in the act, but in the man; and if a depraved nature is to abstain from sin, it can only be effected by a change of heart. This theory Edwards asserted by an appeal to the facts of universal experience, and by a thorough analysis of the complex cause of action. In his essay on the "Nature of Virtue" he finds it to consist in love; not in love as resting complacently on its objects, but in love as the ruling motive of the will; love in action, benevolence. And this love is not for self; the doctrine of Edwards is the intensest protest against the theory of self-love. Taking Christ's summary of the law under two commandments of love to God and love to one's neighbor, he finds a general term which includes both God and man in "Being," and he therefore defines virtue as the "love of Being." Thus virtue implies the love of God with all the soul, for God is the Being of beings, "in effect, Being in general." The love to universal Being includes all being, each in its degree, according to its amount of existence; active love for the good of the world of mankind before the love of country, of country before that of a single city, of a city before a family, of the family before the individual, of the individual only in subordination to the great system of the whole. The theory is the opposite of that which makes self-love the foundation of moral order. It does not weaken the bonds of family affection; only the love of wife or husband, parent or child, must not be the paramount motive. In this light the doctrine of the oneness of the race, which Edwards asserted with great clearness and force, gains new significance. The ethical theory of Edwards is cosmical. It is universal history resting on the principle of the redemption of the world, decreed from all eternity; the gradual progress and advancement of the race through the presence of the Divine Word and its ever approaching triumph over all enemies. Events seem confused like the work of an architect, who employs many hands in many kinds of labor at once; but a knowledge of the design removes all appearance of confusion; and so the design of the Divine Word in redemption EDWARDS, Jonathan, president of Union college, Schenectady, N. Y., son of the preceding, born in Northampton, Mass., May 26, 1745, died in Schenectady, Aug. 1, 1801. At the age of six he went with his parents to Stockbridge, where there was but one school for both Indians and whites, of the latter of whom there were so few that he was in danger of forgetting the English tongue. He thoroughly learned the language of the Stockbridge Indians, and in later years published a treatise on the subject. In his 10th year he was sent by his father with the Rev. Gideon Hawley among the Six Nations, that he might also learn their language and become qualified to be a missionary among them. Here he made rapid progress; but owing to the disturbances of the French war, he soon returned to Stockbridge. In 1761 he entered the college at Princeton, N. J., where he graduated in 1765. He studied divinity with Dr. Bellamy, and in 1766 was licensed to preach. In 1767 he became tutor in the college at Princeton. In 1769 he was ordained as pastor of the church in White Haven, in the town of New Haven, Conn., where he continued till May 19, 1795. Resigning his charge, mainly on account of difference in doctrinal views between himself and some of his people, he was settled in 1796 as pastor of the church in Colebrook, where he gave much time to study, and to an extensive correspondence with learned men in America and in Europe. In May, 1799, he was . elected president of Union college, but only lived two years after his inauguration. His complete works, edited with a memoir by his grandson, the Rev. Tryon Edwards, D. D., were published in 2 vols. at Andover in 1842. EDWARDS, Justin, an American clergyman, born in Westhampton, Mass., April 25, 1787, died at Virginia Springs, July 23, 1853. He graduated at Williams college in 1810, settled in the ministry at Andover in 1812, removed to the Salem street church, Boston, in 1828, and in 1829 resigned this charge to become secretary of the American temperance society, in the service of which he was engaged for seven years, delivering lectures and addresses, and preparing the "Temperance Documents." After this, he was for six years president of the Andover theological seminary. He wrote the "Sabbath Manual," and spent four years in preparing a brief commentary on all the New and part of the Old Testament, for the American tract society, before finishing which he died. He was the author of several valuable tracts, some of which have had a wide circulation. Of his "Temperance Manual" and of the different parts of his "Sabbath Manual" many hundred thousand copies have been printed. A memoir of his life and labors was published by the American tract society in 1855. EDWARDS, Milne. See MILNE-EDWARDS. EDWARDS, Richard, an English dramatist, born in Somersetshire in 1523, died about 1566. He was educated at Corpus Christi college, Oxford. His "Damon and Pythias was the first English tragedy on a classical subject, and was acted before the queen at Oxford about 1566. All his other dramas are lost. He wrote several minor poems, of which Amantium Ira has been often reprinted. EDWARDS, Tryon, an American clergyman and author, grandson of the younger Jonathan Edwards, born in Hartford, Conn., Aug. 7, 1809. He graduated at Yale college in 1828, studied law in New York and theology at Princeton, and settled in the ministry at Rochester, N. Y., in 1834. He removed in 1845 to New London, Conn. In 1832 a prize tract on Sabbath schools appeared from his pen, and he has from that time contributed constantly to the religious press. Among his publications are an address delivered at Williams college in 1841, entitled "Christianity a Philosophy of Principles;" a memoir of the younger President Edwards, published with his complete works (1842); "Self-Cultivation" (1843); and a memoir of Dr. Bellamy, published with his complete works (1850). He has edited a volume entitled "Charity and its Fruits," from the MSS. of the elder President Edwards, and several collections designed especially for domestic culture, as "Select Poetry for Children and Youth" (1851), "Jewels for the Household" (1852), The World's Laconics" (1852), and "Wonders of the World" (1855). He was long editor of the "Family Christian Almanac." EDWIN, king of Northumbria, born about 586, ascended the throne in 617, and died in 633. He was an infant when at the death of his father, Ella, king of Deira, the throne was usurped by his brother-in-law, Ethelfrid, king of Bernicia, who in 593 united the two kingdoms under the name of Northumbria. Edwin was placed by his friends under the protection of Cadvan of North Wales. The British prince was assailed by the Northumbrian, and the two armies met in the vicinity of Chester. Victory decided for Ethelfrid; a body of monks who had stationed themselves on a neighboring hill to deprecate the success of the invader were put to the sword, and the great monastery of Bangor, containing 2,100 monks, was demolished. Edwin then wandered through the different principalities of the Britons and Saxons, till he found an asylum at the court of Redwald, king of the East Angles. Redwald made war on Ethelfrid; the armies met in 617 on the banks of the Idle, in Nottinghamshire; Ethelfrid was defeated and slain, and Edwin without further opposition ascended the throne. The martial genius of Edwin raised Northumbria to preeminence among the Anglo-Saxon states. The islands of Anglesea and Man became subject to his authority, all the princes of the Britons paid him tribute, and among the Saxon kings Eadbald of Kent alone retained a nominal independence. So inflexible was his administration of justice, that in his days it was a common saying that a woman or a child might openly carry every where a purse of gold without danger of robbery. The chief event of his reign was the introduction of Christianity into the kingdom of Northumbria. He married Ethelburga, a princess of Kent, daughter of that Bertha by whose influence the king and people of Kent had been already converted to Christianity. Yet neither the entreaties of the young queen, the arguments of the learned bishop Paulinus, nor the letters and presents of Pope Boniface V., could for a long time turn him from the worship of his fathers. He consulted alternately the priests on either side, revolved in solitude their opposite arguments, assembled the witenagemote for consultation, and at last avowed himself a convert, and was followed by his people. Edwin perished in a disastrous battle with the combined armies of Penda, king of Mercia, and Ceadwalla, king of the Britons, who had raised the standard of rebellion, and marched into Yorkshire; and the kingdom was soon after recovered by Oswald, son of Ethelfrid. EDWY, surnamed the Fair, a king of the Anglo-Saxons, son of Edmund I., and successor of his uncle Edred, born about 938, ascended the throne in 955, and died at the close of 958. He was passionate and dissolute. Having on the day of his coronation retired from the banquet to the apartment of a young princess named Elgiva, he was violently taken back to the table by St. Dunstan, whom he then ban ished from the kingdom. Archbishop Odo broke with an armed force into the villa where Elgiva resided, defaced the beauty of that lady with brands, and exiled her to Ireland; but she returned to England, where she suffered hamstringing and died. It is in dispute among historians whether Elgiva, who was within the prohibited degrees of consanguinity, was the wife or the mistress of Edwy. The English favored the ecclesiastics rather than the king, and a rebellion broke out under Edgar, a younger brother of Edwy, who was chosen king by the Mercians. Edwy was obliged to flee beyond the Thames, and the civil war was ended in 957 by a general meeting of the thanes, who determined that that river should be a boundary between the dominions of the two brothers. Edwy governed Wessex and Kent till his death. EECKHOUT, or Eckhout, Gerbrant van den, a Dutch painter, born in Amsterdam, Aug. 19, 1621, died there, Sept. 22, 1674. He was a pupil of Rembrandt, and in some measure successful in imitating his manner, especially in the early part of his life. He excelled chiefly in portraits, and these as well as his historical pictures abound in the best collections of Holland, while several are to be found in Germany. EECLOO, or Eceloo, a town of Belgium, in the province of East Flanders, 11 m. N. W. of Ghent; pop. in 1866, 9,564. It has an active industry and commerce in woollen and cotton fabrics, hats, tobacco, and oil, and is an important grain market. EEL, a name applied to several malacopterous fishes of the families anguillida, congerida, and muranida, especially to the typical genera anguilla (Cuv.), conger (Cuv.), and murana (Thunb.). From their snake-like appearance, and the absence of ventral fins or posterior limbs, they have been called anguiform apodes; they all have the body more or less elongated and cylindrical, no ribs in the skeleton, a cæcal stomach, and simple not-jointed fin rays. In the genus anguilla, to which the common eel belongs, the scarcely apparent scales are cycloid, narrow, oblong, arranged in groups at right angles to each other, forming a kind of lattice-work under the cuticle; the whole skin is soft and slimy, thickly studded with muciparous glands and ducts; the nostrils are double, each having two orifices, the anterior prolonged into a tube, and the posterior opening above the mouth; the teeth are card-like or villiform in both jaws, and a few on the anterior part of the vomer; the gill opening on each side is very small, and just in front of the pectoral fin, which exists in all the species; the dorsal fin begins at a considerable distance from the head, behind the pectorals, and forms a continuous fin with the caudal and anal; the lower jaw is longer than the upper. About 50 species are described. The common eel of the northern and middle states (A. Bostoniensis, Lesueur, and vulgaris, Mitch.) is greenish or olive-brown above, and yellowish or yellowish white be neath, often with a reddish tinge along the anal fin; in a specimen 2 ft. long, measured by Dr. Storer, the short pectorals were about 8 in. from the end of the snout. The eel inhabits both salt and fresh water, from the British provinces to the southern states, wherever it can find its favorite muddy bottoms and extensive flats; it prefers shallows near the shore, where it may be caught in great numbers by hook and line, by bobbing, and by spearing; the places frequented by it are called eel grounds, in which during winter the fishes bed themselves in the soft mud to the depth of about a foot, and are then speared through holes cut in the ice; the best time for catching them is at night, by torchlight. During their passage up and down rivers they are taken in baskets and pots baited with fish or any decaying matter. The eel is very voracious and quite omnivorous; when in good condition it is well flavored, though from its snake-like appearance (and it is only in form that it resembles a snake) most persons are prejudiced against it. The length varies from 6 in. to 2 ft.; in summer it is sometimes seen weighing several pounds. At the mouths of the rivers emptying into Boston Common Eel (Anguilla vulgaris). harbor eels are caught in nets, 15 or 20 bushels at a time, and are kept alive until wanted in ditches supplied by the tide. The silver eel (4. argentea, Les.) is silvery gray, darker above, and satiny white below; the pectorals are nearer the head than in the common species, of which, however, it is considered by some only a variety; it is taken in pots in October, when it leaves the ponds. A large species, caught in the lakes of western New York, is the beaked eel (A. rostrata, Les.); the snout is elongated and pointed; the upper parts are olive-gray, sometimes slaty blue, and the lower parts white; the dorsal and anal fins reddish; length about 2 ft. The common eel of Europe (A. acutirostris, Yarrell) has a sharper snout than ours; it is highly esteemed as food, and the London market is supplied principally from Holland, from which the eels are brought alive in vessels carrying each from 15,000 to 20,000 lbs. Eels are much esteemed in other countries, especially, according to Ellis, in Polynesia, where they are often tamed and fed until they attain an enormous size. They are prolific, hardy, and easily preserved in salt, fresh, or brackish water. They make two migrations annually, one in autumn to the sea, the other in spring or summer from the sea to the rivers. They are not found in arctic regions, nor in the rivers of the extreme north of Europe; even in temperate regions, at the approach of winter, they bury themselves in the mud, remaining torpid until spring; they remain without food, breathing hardly at all, at a low animal temperature, and almost motionless; yet the irritability of the muscular fibre is very great, as is shown by the restless motions of eels during thunderstorms, and by their well known movements after the skin has been removed. Though not possessing the respiratory pouches of the anabas, the eel is able to survive a long time out of water, simply because the gills remain moist from the small size of the branchial orifices; by this means it traverses considerable distances on land, moving like a snake through the grass; this explains the appearance of eels in fish ponds from which the utmost care has been taken to exclude them, on account of their destruction of the spawn and young of more valuable fishes; they have been often seen performing such overland journeys at night. Eels are found in fresh water which has no communication with the sea; having a capacious air bladder, they are able to ascend rapidly to the surface, and sometimes swim very high in deep water; though slow of growth, they attain a large size under favorable circumstances, having been caught in England weighing 27 lbs. The town of Ely is said to have been so named from the rents having been formerly paid in eels, the lords of the manor being annually entitled to more than 100,000; Elmore, on the Severn, was so called from the immense number of these fish there taken; so also Aalborg (Eel Town) in Denmark, &c.-The conger eels differ from the genus anguilla in having the dorsal fin begin nearer the head, at or even in front of the pectoral, and in having the upper jaw the longer; the anterior nostrils open by short tubes close to the end of the snout, and the posterior in front of the large eyes; the teeth of the palate and vomer are slender, with chisel-shaped crowns, and closely arranged; the skin is naked and scaleless, and the tail elongated and pointed; in other respects they resemble the common eel. The American conger (conger occidentalis, De Kay) is olive-brown Conger Eel (Conger occidentalis). above and whitish below; the dorsal and anal fins are transparent, with a dark border; the lateral line is distinct, with a series of white dots; it is from 3 to 5 ft. long, and either this or another species is found from the gulf of St. Lawrence southward as far as the coast of VOL. VI.-29 New Jersey. The European conger (C. vulgaris, Cuv.) is common on the coast of Cornwall, on the eastern rocky shores, and in banks off the coast of France; it is caught on lines, the best bait being the sand launce (ammodytes) or the pilchard, and the fishing is performed at night; great numbers are taken, and meet with a ready sale at a low price to the poorer classes, but it is not held in much estimation. Congers are very voracious, and specimens have been caught weighing 130 lbs., more than 10 ft. long and 18 in. in circumference; they are very strong, bite sharply, and have great tenacity of life. As many as 156 vertebræ have been found in the conger, about 40 more than are found in the eel; they spawn in December and January. Sir John Richardson alludes to nine species.-The eel of the Mediterranean, so famous in the days of ancient Rome, belongs to the genus murana, characterized by the absence of pectorals, smooth and scaleless skin, small lateral branchial orifice on each side, and the united dorsal and anal fins, low and fleshy, hardly distinguishable beyond the margin of the body; the teeth are arranged in a single row around the edge of the nasal bone, with a few on the longitudinal median line. More than 20 species are described, attaining the size of 4 or 5 ft.; one (M. moringa, Cuv.) was found by Catesby at the Bahama islands. The classic species of the Mediterranean (M. Helena, Linn.), the Roman murana, grows to the length of 4 or 5 ft.; the color is a purplish brown, marked with sub-angular yellow markings, and spotted with beautiful shades of yellow, purple, golden yellow, and white; the anterior nostrils open near the end of the snout, the posterior just above the eyes; the cheeks are rather tumid from muscular development. It has been caught on the English coast, but it abounds in the Mediterranean; great numbers were consumed by the ancient Romans, who kept them in ponds, and placed them alive on the table in crystal vessels, that the guests might admire their beautiful colors before they were cooked. Cæsar is said to have distributed 6,000 of these fishes among his friends on the celebration of one of his triumphs. They are very voracious, fierce, and tenacious of life, and are said sometimes to have been fed on the flesh of slaves who had offended their Roman masters. Their bite is much dreaded by the fishermen. The flesh is white, delicate, and much esteemed. There are many species, exclusively marine.-The sand eel (ammodytes Americanus, De Kay) has an elongated, slightly compressed body, large gill openings, a dorsal fin extending nearly the whole length of the back, and an anal fin of considerable size, both separated from the caudal; the lower jaw the longer; the color is yellowish or bluish brown above, mixed with silvery and light green; the sides and abdomen are silvery; the length is from 6 to 12 in. This species is found from the coast of Labrador to that of New York; in the provinces it is largely used as |