his own person, and which Hesiod has perfectly expressed in two words, by calling that prince, the most royal of mortal kings, βασιλεύτατον θνητῶν βασιλέων: that is to say, that he possessed in a supreme degree all royal virtues, and was a king in all things.

It appears,* that the authority of king was of no long duration, and that it gave place to a republican government, as Minos had intended. The senate, composed of thirty senators, formed the public council. In that assembly the public affairs were examined, and resolutions taken; but they were of no force till the people had given them their approbation, and confirmed them by their suffrages. The magistrates, to the number of ten, established for maintaining good order in the state, and therefore called Cosmi,† held the two other bodies of the state in check, and preserved the balance between them. In time of war the same persons commanded the army. They were chosen by lot, but only out of certain families. Their office was for life, and they were not accountable to any for their administration. Out of this company the senators were elected.

The Cretans made the slaves and mercenaries cultivate their lands, who were obliged to pay them a certain annual sum. They were called Periceci, probably from their being drawn from neighbouring nations whom Minos had subjected. As they inhabited an island, and consequently a country separate from all others, the Cretans had not so much to fear from these vassals as the Lacedæmonians from the Helots, who often joined the neighbouring people against them. A custom anciently established in Crete,‡ from whence it was adopted by the Romans, gives us reason to believe that the vassals who tilled the lands were treated with great mildness and humanity. In the feasts of Mercury, the masters waited on their slaves at table, and did them the same offices as they received from them the rest of the year;-precious remains and traces of the primitive world, in which all men were equal, that seemed to inform the masters that their servants were of the same condition with themselves, and that to treat them with cruelty and pride was to renounce humanity.

As a prince cannot do every thing alone, and is obliged to associate co-operators with himself, for whose conduct he is accountable, Minos charged his brother Rhadamanthus with a share in the administration of justice in the capital city, which is the most essential and indispensable function of sovereignty. He knew his probity, disinterestedness, ability, and constancy, and had taken pains to form him for so important an office. Another minister had the care of the rest of the cities, through which he made a circuit three times a year, to examine whether the laws established by the prince were duly observed, and the inferior magistrates and officers religiously acquitted themselves of their duty.

* Arist. de Rep. 1. ii. c. 10.

Plat. in Min. p. 320.

+ Κόσμος, orde.

Athen. I. xiv. p. 639

Crete, under so wise a government, changed its aspect entirely, and seemed to have become the abode of virtue, probity, and justice, as we may judge from what fabulous history tells us of the honour Jupiter did these two brothers, in making them the judges of the infernal regions; for every body knows that fable is founded upon real history, though disguised under agreeable emblems and allegories, adapted to recommend truth by the ornaments of fancy.

It was, according to fabulous tradition,* a law established from the beginning of time, that men on departing this life should be judged, in order to their receiving the reward or punishment due to their good or evil actions. In the reign of Saturn, and in the first years of that of Jupiter, this judgment was pronounced at the instant preceding death, which left room for very flagrant injustice. Princes, who had been cruel and tyrannical, appearing before their judges in all the pomp and splendour of their power, and producing witnesses to depose in their favour, because, as they were still alive, they dreaded their anger; the judges, dazzled with this vain show, and deceived by such false evidence, declared these princes innocent, and dismissed them with permission to enter into the happy abodes of the just. The same may be said in regard to the rich; but for the poor and helpless, calumny and malice pursued them even to this last tribunal, and found means to have them doomed for ever as criminals.

Fabulous history adds, that, upon reiterated complaints and warm remonstrances made to Jupiter upon this account, he changed the form of these trials. The time for them was fixed for the very moment after death. Rhadamanthus and acus, both sons of Jove, were appointed judges; the first for the Asiatics, the other for the Europeans; and Minos over them to decide supremely in cases of doubt and obscurity. Their tribunal is situated in a place called The Field of Truth, because neither falsehood nor calumny can approach it The greatest prince must appear there, as soon as he has resigned his last breath, deprived of all his grandeur, reduced to his naked self, without defence or protection, silent and trembling for his own doon, after having made the whole world tremble for theirs. If he be found guilty of crimes which are of a nature to be expiated, he is confined in Tartarus for a certain time only, and with assurances of being released as soon as he shall be sufficiently purified. But if his crimes are unpardonable, such as injustice, perjury, and the oppression of his people, he is cast into the same Tartarus, there to suffer eternal miseries. The just, on the contrary, of whatsoever condition they are, are conducted into the blest abodes of peace and joy, to partake of a felicity which shall have no end.

Who does not see that the poets, under the cover of these fictions, ingenious indeed, but little to the honour of the gods,

*Plat. in Gorg. p. 523-526. In Axioch. p. 371.

intended to give us the model of an accomplished prince, whose first care is to render justice to his people, and to depict the extraordinary happiness Crete enjoyed under the wise government of Minos? This happiness did not expire with him. The laws he established subsisted in all their vigour even in Plato's time,* that is to say, more than 900 years after;† and they were considered as the effect of his long conversations for many years with Jupiter,t who had condescended to become his tearher, to enter into a familiarity with him as with a friend, and to form him in the great art of reigning with a secret complacency, as a favourite disciple and tenderly-beloved son. It is in this manner Plato explains these words of Homer, Aids μejáncu bagiris the most cxalted praise, according to him, that can be given to a mortal, and which that poet ascribes only to Minos.

Notwithstanding so shining and solid a merit, the theatres of Athens resounded with imprecations against the memory of Minos; and Socrates, in the dialogue of Plato, which I have already often cited, observes upon, and gives the reason for them: but first he makes a reflection well worthy of being weighed: When either the praise or dispraise of great men is in question, it is of the utmost importance, says he, to make use of circumspection and wisdom; because upon that depends the idea men form to themselves of virtue and vice, and the distinction they ought to make between the good and the bad. For, adds he, God conceives a just indignation when a prince is blamed who resembles himself, and on the contrary another praised who is directly the reverse. We must not believe that nothing is sacred but brass and marble (he speaks of the statues that were worshipped;) the just man is the most sacred, and the wicked the most detestable, of all beings in this world.

After this reflection, Socrates observes, that the source and cause of the Athenians' hatred of Minos was the unjust and cruel tribute he imposed upon them, in obliging them to send him, every nine years, seven young men and as many maids, to be devoured by the Minotaur: and he cannot avoid reproaching that prince with having drawn upon himself the abhorrence of a city like Athens, abounding with learned men, and of having sharpened the tongues of the poets against him, a dangerous and formidable race of men, from the poisoned shafts which they never fail to let fly against their enemies.

It appears from what I have repeated, that Plato imputes to this Minos of whom we are treating, the imposition of that cruel tribute. Apollodorus, Strabo, and Plutarch, seem to be of the same opinion. The Abbé Banier alleges and proves that they are mistaken, and confound the first Minos, of whom we speak, with a second, biz

This poetical fiction is perhaps taken from the Holy Scriptures, which say of Moses' And the Lord spake unto Moses face to face, as a man speaketh unto his friend. Exod xxxiii. 11. T Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscrip. tom üi.

VOL. IV.

Odyss. T. ver. 179.
F

grandson, who reigned after him in Crete, and who, to avenge the death of his son Androgeus, killed in Attica, declared war against the Athenians, and imposed that tribute, to which Theseus put an end by killing the Minotaur. It would indeed be difficult to reconcile so inhuman and barbarous a conduct with what all antiquity relates of the goodness, lenity, and equity of Minos, and with the magnificent praises it bestows upon the polity and institutions of Crete.

It is true, that in after-times the Cretans degenerated very much from their ancient reputation, which at length they absolutely lost by an entire change of their manners, becoming avaricious, and so self-interested as to think that no gain was base, enemies of labour and regularity of life, professed liars and knaves; so that to Cretize became a proverb amongst the Greeks, implying to lie and to deceive. Every body knows that St. Paul* cites against them as truth the testimony of one of their ancient poets (it is believed to be Epimenides,) who paints them in colours much to their dishonour. But this change of manners, at whatever time it took place, does not at all affect the probity of the ancient Cretans, nor the glory of Minos their king.

The most certain proof of that legislator's wisdom, as Platof observes, is the solid and lasting happiness which the sole imitation of his laws effected at Sparta. Lycurgus had regulated the government of that city upon the plan and idea of that of Crete; and it subsisted in a unifo.m manner for many ages, without experiencing the vicissitudes and revolutions so common in all the other states of Greece.

ARTICLE II.

Of the government of Athens.

The government of Athens was neither so permanent nor so uniform as that of Sparta, but suffered various alterations, according to the diversity of times and conjunctures. Athens, after having long been governed by kings, and afterwards by archons, assumed entire liberty, which gave place, however, for some years to the tyrannic power of the Pisistratida, but was soon after re-established, and subsisted with splendour till the defeat in Sicily, and the taking of the city by the Lacedæmonians. The latter subjected them to the thirty tyrants, whose authority was not of long duration, and gave place again to liberty, which continued amidst various events during a long series of years, till the Roman power had subdued Greece, and reduced it into a province.

I shall consider in this place only the popular government, and shall examine in particular five or six heads of it: The foundation

• Κρῆτες ἀεὶ ψεῦσται, κακὰ θηρία, γαστέρες ἀργαί, The Cretans are always kars, evil boasts, slow bellies. Titus, i. 12. † Plat. p. 320.

of their government according to Solon's establishment; the different parts of which the republic consisted; the council or senate of Five Hundred; the assemblies of the people; the different tribunals for the administration of justice; the revenues or finances of the republic. I shall be obliged to dwell more at large upon what regards the government of Athens, than I have upon that of Sparta, because the latter is almost sufficiently known, from what has been said of it in the life of Lycurgus.*

SECTION I.

Foundation of the government of Athens according to Solon's plan.

Solon was not the first who established the popular government at Athens. Theser; long before him had traced out the plan, and begun the execution of it. After having united the twelve towns into one city, he divided the inhabitants into three bodies: that of the nobility, to whom the superintendence of religious affairs and all offices were confided; the labourers, or husbandmen; and the artisans. He had proposed the establishment of a kind of equality between the three orders. For if the nobles were considerable by their honours and dignities, the husbandmen had the advantage from their utility to the public, and the necessity there was for their labours; and the artisans had the superiority to both the other bodies from their number. Athens, properly speaking, did not become a popular state till the establishment of the nine Archons, whose authority continued only for one year, whereas before, it lasted for ten; and it was not till many years after, that Solon, by the wisdom of his laws, confirmed and regulated this form of government.

Solon's great principle was to establish as much as possible a kind of equality amongst his citizens, which he regarded with reason as the foundation and essential point of liberty. He resolved therefore to leave the public employments in the hands of the rich, as they had been till then; but to give the poor also some share in the government, from which they were excluded. For this reason he made an estimation of what each individual was worth. Those who were found to have an annual revenue of 500 measures, as well in grain as liquids, were placed in the first class, and called the Pentacosiomedimni, that is, those who had a revenue of 500 measures. The second class was composed of such as had 300, and could maintain a horse for war; these were called horsemen or knights. Those who had only 200, were in the third class, and were called Zugita. Out of these three classes alone the magistrates and commanders were chosen. All the other citizens who

† Plut. in Thes. p. 10, 11.

Plut. in Solon. p. 87.

Vol. ii. it is believed they were so called from their being ranked between the Knights and the Thet; as in the galleys those who rowed in the middle were termed Zugita; their place w between the Thalant and Thranite.