"Jesus saith, [Ye ask, who are those] that draw us [to the kingdom, if] the kingdom is in heaven?-fowls of the air and all the beasts that are under the earth or upon the earth, and the fishes of the sea, [these are they which draw] you, and the kingdom of heaven is within you; and whosoever shall know himself shall find it. [Strive therefore] to know yourselves, and ye shall be aware that ye are the sons of the [Almighty] Father; [and (?)] ye shall know that ye are in [the city of God?] and ye are [the city?]." (See Job 12:7–8, Luke 17:21, 20:36.)

"Jesus saith, A man shall not hesitate . . . to ask concerning his place [in the kingdom. Ye shall know] that many that are first shall be last and the last first and [they shall have eternal life.]" (See Mark 10:31, Matthew 19:30, Luke 13:30, also John 3:16, 36, 5:24.)

"Jesus saith, Everything that is not before thy face and that which is hidden from thee shall be revealed to thee. For there is nothing hidden which shall not be made manifest, nor buried which shall not be raised." (See Matthew, 10:26, Mark 4:22, Luke 12:2.)

"His disciples question him and say, How shall we fast and how shall we [pray (?)]

shall we keep? Jesus saith, .

and what [commandment] do not . . . of truth . . .

...

blessed is he." (See Matthew 6:16, Luke 11:1, for similar situations.) 1

1

1 The version of "The Sayings of Jesus" here given is that of Dr. G. A. Barton, and is taken by permission of the Sunday School Union, from his volume Archeology and the Bible, pp. 428-431.

CHAPTER IV

POETIC FORMS IN THE BIBLE

PARALLELISM of thought and of structure in successive lines had long been recognized as the special rhetorical characteristic of Hebrew poetry as distinguished from prose. It was not until 1741, however, that any systematic study of the subject seems to have been made. In that year Robert Lowth, then Professor of Poetry at Oxford, afterwards Bishop of London, began a series of lectures, in Latin, entitled De Sacra Poesi Hebræorum Prælectiones Academica. They were published in 1753, and, later, edited and published in an English version, which was reprinted a number of times. This was the most important contribution made, up to that time, to the study of the contents of the Bible as literature, in which, as in other literature, a knowledge of form, and a critical study of the kind of material used is essential to interpretation and appreciation.

Of Bishop Lowth's lectures his translator, Dr. G. Gregory, said in his Preface:-" this work will be found an excellent compendium of all the best rules of taste, and of all the principles of composition, illustrated by the boldest and most exalted specimens of genius (if no higher title be allowed them) which antiquity has transmitted to us; and which have hitherto seldom fallen under the inspection of rational criticism." To Bishop Lowth critics turn even yet, for what he said, though familiar to us now, had not been said be

fore. The most important passage is Lecture 19, in which are found the following statements:—“The poetical conformation of the sentences which has been so often alluded to as characteristic of the Hebrew poetry, consists chiefly in certain equality, resemblance, or parallelism, between the members of each period; so that in two lines (or members of the same period) things shall for the most part answer to things, and words to words, as if fitted to each other by a kind of rule or measure. This parallelism has much variety and many gradations; it is sometimes more accurate and manifest, sometimes more vague and obscure; it may, however, on the whole be said to consist of three species." 1 These are explained and illustrated as Synonymous, Antithetic, and Synthetic, or Constructive. Similar parallelism is found in Babylonian and Egyptian poetry.

Examples are:

1. Synonymous. The second line, or half line, repeats the idea of the first.

"Oh that my vexation were but weighed,

And all my calamity laid in the balances!" Job 6:2.

2. Antithetic. The second line is a contrast to the first.

"A soft answer turneth away wrath;

But a grievous word stirreth up anger." Proverbs 15:1.

3. Synthetic. The second line completes the thought of the first.

"Wine is a mocker, strong drink a brawler;

And whosoever erreth thereby is not wise." Proverbs 20:1. 1 Robert Lowth, Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, translated from the Latin by G. Gregory, London, 1847, p. 210,

1

Bishop Jebb calls the introverted quatrain, referred to below, a fourth kind of parallelism, and Dr. Briggs adds a fifth kind, which he calls emblematic, and illustrates by such a verse as:

"For lack of wood the fire goeth out;

And where there is no whisperer, contention ceaseth." Proverbs 26:20.

and a sixth kind, which he illustrates by "the stairlike movement, especially characteristic of the Pilgrim Psalms," Ps. 120-134, in which words of a line are taken up and repeated in the next line as in the following example:

"He that keepeth thee will not slumber. Behold he that keepeth Israel

Will neither slumber nor sleep.

Jehovah is thy keeper;

Jehovah is thy shade upon thy right hand."

3-5.

Psalm 121,

No more striking examples of parallelism of structure can be found than the "Beatitudes":—

"Blessed are the poor in spirit,

For their's is the Kingdom of Heaven.
Blessed are they that mourn,

For they shall be comforted.

Blessed are the meek,

For they shall inherit the earth," etc. Matthew 5:3-10.

Luke gives not only the "Beatitudes," but also a companion series of "Denunciations" corresponding, almost line for line, with the "Beatitudes" (as given by Luke) and exhibiting the same structure:

1 C. A. Briggs, The Study of Holy Scripture, New York, 1899, p. 367.

"Woe unto you that are rich!

For ye have received your consolation.
Woe unto you, ye that are full now!

For ye shall hunger.

Woe unto you, ye that laugh now!

For ye shall mourn and weep.

Woe unto you, when all men shall speak well of you! For in the same manner did their fathers to the false prophets." Luke 6:24–26.

This volume is concerned primarily only with such characteristics of Hebrew poetry as appear in the English translation. The rhetorical structure of Hebrew poetry is very simple when once the principle of parallelism is recognized and the lines are printed separately. The unit is the line, or stichos, which consists, usually, of two quite distinct hemistichs, and is therefore frequently spoken of as a couplet. The combining of lines in various ways produced in Hebrew poetry, as in English, stanzas and strophes, with recurring similarity, but not necessarily identity, of arrangement, either of clauses or of thought. In fact, absolute regularity or uniformity in the repetition of a pattern is almost unknown in Oriental art. Perfect symmetry is distasteful as is shown by the variations introduced in the patterns of rugs and also in architecture. This is true also of Oriental music. Similarity of general structure or of thought, parallelism, is characteristic, but not identity of form, although the latter

Occurs.

Varieties of parallelism in Hebrew poetry are easily found, but the principle in all of them is the same. The commonest form is the couplet, but the single emphatic line occurs, usually final, as in Exodus 15:18, “Jehovah shall reign for ever and ever," or initial, as