a large choice of good books before him, and the only difficulty will be which to select; Dr. Miller's "Elements of Chemistry"* is perhaps the most generally useful, and it has the advantage of being charmingly written for a scientific work. Naquet's "Principes de Chimie," recently translated by Mr. Cortis,+is admirable for its arrangement and its exposition of modern views, but it is somewhat too theoretical to be sufficient alone. It might, perhaps, be supplemented by Professor Bloxam's work, "Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical," which abounds with the most valuable detail of fact and experiment, but which does not deal much with theory. It is, perhaps, to be feared that books like those I have instanced go rather farther into the subject than most masters could follow, but it is not absolutely necessary to master the whole of them. The first volume of Miller, for instance, is devoted to chemical physics, and, with the exception of those portions of it which impinge directly upon chemistry, its study might be deferred. The third volume, again, is an elaborate treatise upon organic chemistry, and its study is not immediately necessary, though highly desirable. The really essential part, for one who wishes to teach, is that portion of the second volume which treats upon the chemistry of the non-metallic elements, and this must be thoroughly mastered. While speaking of books, it is right to mention the greatest of English works upon chemistry, Watts's "Dictionary of Chemistry," which, after a labour of five years, is at last completed. It is a noble work, but larger than any who did not want it for a special purpose would require.

Very soon after the completion of the introductory manual, the experimental study must commence, and with it the learner's real difficulties. A room must, in the first place, be set apart for the purpose, and provided with a few shelves and drawers; and, if they can by any means be attained, a supply of water and gas. It is difficult to over-estimate the advantage and comfort which the two last fittings will yield, and, fortunately, they can generally be procured without much difficulty. A flexible tube will carry the gas to any part of the table where it is wanted. Now comes the question of apparatus and chemicals, and here it is very difficult to give precise indications, for no two learners will be exactly alike in their ideas of the amount of time and money which they ought to expend. Rather than be vague, I will assume that the expense is to be as slight as possible, and consequently that difficult or costly experiments are to be avoided. I do this with less hesitation because I believe that

+ Churchill.

the study is more likely to progress satisfactorily if this course is adopted. It is a common schoolmaster's mistake to start in the direction of science by buying one or two costly and elaborate pieces of apparatus. One nearly always finds somewhere about a private school a most wonderful air-pump and electrical machine, often unaccompanied by any of the accessory apparatus. One of the finest electrical machines I ever saw was in the hall of a private school, accompanied by an electrical battery of such portentous size, that it might have been used as an engine of war. The owner was not ignorant of science, but I question if he had ever made the apparatus work. If he had, he had certainly had a narrow escape for his life. In such cases as these it is obviously impossible to buy all the apparatus on a similar scale, and either there will appear a ridiculous disproportion between the one big and the many little things, or, as more frequently happens, the whole attempt soon ceases. On the other hand, a small sum of money, judiciously laid out, will go a great way, especially in Chemistry, which has a decided advantage over Physics in this respect; physical apparatus being, as a rule, more expensive and useful for fewer experiments than chemical. The most serious expenses in preparing for a short course of chemical study will be found to be bottles and chemicals. A good many of the former-most of those intended to hold solids—may be corked, but nearly all liquids should be kept in stoppered

ones.

In this preliminary experimental study, the main object is to select and practise a series of experiments to illustrate lectures. After going through all the experiments upon a particular subject which he can manage, the learner will therefore do well to arrange rough notes for a lecture upon it, to decide upon suitable experiments, and to repeat them carefully. He should do this with the same apparatus which he intends to use at lecture, and he will in this way prepare the whole course of lectures, and become to some extent familiar with it before he attempts the delivery of it. A very important point to decide at the outset is the scale upon which the experiments are to be performed. The size of the apparatus required will of course depend mainly upon the size of the lecture-room, but the lecturer will be wise if he does everything upon as small a scale as is consistent with its being distinctly visible in all parts of the room. No mistake is commoner than that of performing the experiments upon too large a scale. With a popular lecture it is different, there all depends upon show, but the teacher should remember that a red precipitate obtained in a test-tube is just as characteristic, and teaches just as much, as if it were pro

duced in a two-gallon bottle; and the expense and the risk of failure are both lessened by working upon a moderate scale. Florence flasks, gas jars from eight to twelve inches high, and test-glasses of from three to six ounces capacity, will be large enough for most rooms, but the lecturer must decide upon these points for himself. Another thing to be considered relates to the mode in which the materials are to be purchased. A few constantly wanted articles, such as lamps, flasks, a retort-stand, a pneumatic trough, some bottles, jars, test-glasses and testtubes, must be procured immediately; these I hope to indicate more definitely hereafter. And all the materials required for the first few weeks' study must be provided with them, and work can then be commenced. If the student is fortunate enough to live near a shop where the necessary materials can be obtained, I think he will be wise to do no more than this at first, but to purchase other things as he wants them. But if, as will very often happen, he has to send to London, or to the nearest large town for them, he must arrange his work for some time in advance, and will no doubt have to bear the frequent mortification of finding that he is stopped in the middle of his work by the want of some simple but absolutely necessary article: many of these wants practice will teach him to supply for himself, and with a stock of wire and pliers, tin-plate, corks, glass and vulcanized caoutchouc tubing, and a few common tools, it is surprising how much may be done. Nevertheless the more carefully he considers the exigencies of future experiments, the more he plans them in advance, the less inconvenience and delay he will suffer. Excellent catalogues of apparatus and chemicals are to be had from the principal makers, and from them the necessary articles may be selected and the cost regulated. As a general rule, it is a bad plan to go to a shop and pick out things at random. Any one who is not thoroughly used to experimenting will be sure to buy many things which he does not really want, and to forget others which are absolutely essential to him.

As regards the choice of experiments, that is a matter which I hope to consider in some detail hereafter, and I will only at present suggest that nothing but the very simplest illustrations should be attempted in the first course of lectures. Let the lecturer try all he can manage beforehand, but let him exclude from the lecture itself everything in which he is the least likely to fail. A few simple and well-performed experiments,

"Griffin's Cheinical Handicraft," J. J. Griffin and Sons, 22, Garrick-street, Covent-garden, is the best I know of. It is more than a mere catalogue; it is in some respects a treatise upon chemical apparatus.

thoroughly explained, are better than any number of elaborate ones bungled, and it is wonderful how much chemistry may be taught with very cheap and simple illustrations. The lecturer must not forget when working in his laboratory, that many things which are easy there will be very troublesome on the lecture-table, where he is hurried for time and where he is subject to the constant distraction of having to explain what he is doing. He should rehearse not only the experiments but the precise mode in which he intends to perform those experiments, and remember constantly that one little thing forgotten, a piece of tube, a cork, or a test-tube, may make all the difference between success and failure. He must study to perform the experiment quickly, and must not be discouraged when he finds that the thousand little nameless manipulations of the chemist are as difficult to acquire as they are indescribable in words. The first time one tries to boil water in a test-tube over a gas flame, the chances are either that the bottom of the tube flies out, or that the boiling liquid is spirted over the table, and it is some little time before one acquires the knack of moving the tube about in such a way that the liquid shall be heated uniformly and quickly. This is a simple case, but it illustrates very well the kind of dexterity which must be acquired, and which can only be acquired by constant practice.

PRE-RAPHAELITE ART AND POETRY.

PART III.-THE RESULTS.

By JOHN BURNELL PAYNE.

WE have seen that English Pre-Raphaelitism had two main factors-the influence of English naturalism, as seen in Wordsworth and Turner and expounded by Mr. Ruskin, and the widely different influence of a special historical sympathy for the Middle Ages, which was originated in England, in its later and more vital form, by Mr. D. G. Rossetti. The effort after "the truth of nature" which was connected with the former tendency produced a temporary neglect of beauty. It was maintained that discrimination in this respect is irreverence to nature; that to the seeing eye all things are beautiful; that the moral excellence of "faithfulness" in imitation or transcription will be infallibly rewarded with a free gift of beauty-such beauty, at least, as alone the purged sense can receive and enjoy. The influence of these convictions has been most clearly seen in our

landscape art; and to that, as we said before, it has been beneficial in the highest degree. The landscapes of the literal school are not pictures in the proper sense, but they are admirable studies for pictures; and as facility is the snare and bane of this branch of the art, it was a good thing that landscape-painters should be urged, in whatever way, to devote themselves to studies involving difficulty. It may, perhaps, be doubted whether the best landscapes will not always be produced by figure-painters-first, because of the power which the latter acquire from the immense difficulty of their work; and secondly, because the very element required to make landscapes pictorially interesting is a transfusion of imaginative life from the sphere of human thought and feeling. Be this as it may, however, a school of pure landscape does exist among us, and it does its work in a far more workmanlike way than in the old slipshod days before "Modern Painters."

In considering the progress of the school as one of figuresubject, it is equally important to keep apart in our minds the widely different tendencies, Naturalism and Mediævalism, although they cannot always be separated in their results. The mediævalizing impulse in its strictest form was, as we said before, early exhausted. Of the painters who in any degree fulfilled the promise of the early days, Mr. Rossetti alone continued for some years to limit himself to the religious or romantic objects of medieval life. He alone, in truth, of the whole school, had acquired, from study and inheritance, a profound sympathy for the middle ages. It was the other side of the original movement, the mixed moralizing and imitative purpose, which permanently fixed the character of Mr. Millais', Mr. Hunt's, Mr. Madox Brown's, and Mr. Woolner's works. The total and premeditated neglect of beauty sprang naturally from this view of the province and functions of Art. If we try to imagine the appearances of a remote antiquity, the distance itself almost forces us to idealize. Looking back into the past is, in fact, looking towards a golden age. But when it is conceived that the artist's business is to "paint from any models, taking them as they come," and to exactly reproduce as many as possible of the "facts" which are actually, though fortuitously, associated with the central interest of his subject, it is evident that beauty, whether in a part or in the whole, will be hard to preserve. And when, in addition to this, he is held to be morally bound to express some ethical or religious proposition or counsel by his work, or to heighten in the spectators some perceptions of right and wrong or of good and evil, then it is evident that expression and character will claim a prominence dangerous to the supremacy of beauty. Thus, in Mr. Millais'