gold fish is a native of China. Of molluscous | from that of Europe and America. Up to animals, the pearl oyster claims special notice, a certain point, and in certain directions, the found chiefly in the Persian gulf and on the Asiatics made great advances in every decoasts of Ceylon.-Russian Asia includes the partment of thought and culture; but that whole of the continent north of about 50°, with point once reached, the progress of developconsiderable southern extensions in the ex- ment was checked. In China the laws, literatreme east and in the west, reaching beyond ture, art, and industry have remained almost 39°, the chief of which is a strip between the fixed for ages. So, too, although in a someBlack sea and the Caspian, including Cauca- what less degree, in India. The changes which sia and some territory acquired from Persia. have been wrought have sprung from without, Russia is slowly extending her domination from the pressure of foreign races or the inamong the independent tribes toward India, fluence of a new religion, rather than from a which it threatens to reach at no very distant principle of growth from within. Their very date. Chiefly between lat. 50° and 40° lie languages show a lack of progressiveness. The Turkistan, Mongolia, and Mantchooria, in- Chinese language now is the Chinese of 2,000 habited by tribes which are more or less in- years ago. The Arabic of the Koran is the dependent. Chiefly between lat. 40° and 30° Arabic of to-day.-The religions of Asia fall lie Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, and Thibet, mainly within three great classes: Buddhism with China at the east, extending southward in China and Japan, respectively modified by to a little below 20°, and the main Japanese and mingled with Confucianism and Sintoism; islands. Between lat. 30° and 20° lie Arabia, Brahminism in India; and Mohammedanism extending southward beyond 13°, southern existing in almost every region, but especially in Persia, Beloochistan, and the northern por- the Turkish dominions, Persia, and the smaller tions of Hindostan and Further India. South states of western Asia. The pagans on the one of lat. 20° are the main parts of the Indian hand, and the Christians and Jews on the peninsulas, the eastern including Burmah, other, are too few to be taken into the genSiam, and Anam, with the Malay peninsula, eral account. The Greek church may nomreaching southward almost to the equator. inally number 7,500,000, the Roman Catholic The population of Asia is estimated at about 4,500,000, the Protestant 500,000. Religion 790,000,000, or nearly three fifths of the entire seems to be almost the only changeable thing inhabitants of the globe. It is very unequally in Asia. In two centuries Buddhism became distributed over the continent. China proper the predominant religion of 300,000,000 peoand British India, with an area of less than ple; in half that time Islamism spread from 2,500,000 sq. m., have upward of 500,000,000; Arabia to Persia, Hindostan, and Tartary; while Siberia, with about 5,000,000 sq. m., has and within a few years Babism, a new religion, less than 4,000,000. At least half the popula- has sprung up in western Asia, and is rapidly tion of the globe is concentrated in China and spreading in Persia, Turkey, and India. (See India. Ethnologists usually group the inhab- BABISM.) The political institutions of Asia itants of Asia into three great classes: 1. The present a variety of forms, among which the Mongolian race embraces almost all the peoples republican and constitutional are not to be of the north, east, and southeast, including found. Strict absolutism is the prevailing Siberia, Tartary, China, Thibet, and the Indo- form. In many parts of Arabia and Tartary Chinese peninsula, besides the dominant peo- various nomadic tribes have a patriarchal ple of Turkey. But while the physical char- government, under their own chiefs, although acteristics of the Chinese are similar to those they nominally recognize a higher authorof the Tartars, so great is the distinction be- ity. In the true sense, only Turkey, Persia, tween their languages that many have consid- Afghanistan, China, Japan, Burmah, Siam, ered them as of a wholly distinct race. 2. The and Anam can be called independent counAryan race embraces the main populations of tries. All others are more or less dependent Hindostan, Afghanistan, Beloochistan, Persia, upon the great empires of Asia or Europe. and Caucasia, besides Russians, Greeks, Ar- In China the government is an absolute monmenians, and others in Siberia, Turkey, and archy. More than a third of the continent is elsewhere. 3. The Semitic race includes the under the government of Russia and England. Syrians and Arabians, besides Jews in various The most extraordinary foreign conquest is parts. The Malay race appears on the con- that by the British, which in a century and a tinent only in the peninsula of Malacca. (See quarter has made England mistress of more ETHNOLOGY.) Only a small part of the in- subjects than were ever ruled by any Roman habitants of Asia can be properly designated emperor. Compared with the British possesas barbarous, for most of them have from sions, those of the French in Cochin China time immemorial possessed a literature and and the Portuguese in India and at Macao in established forms of government. Nor can China are quite insignificant, while Holland they be called half civilized with much more and Spain possess only islands near the contipropriety than the term might be applied nent. Turkey should be considered an Asiatic to the ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks, power with possessions in Europe, rather than and Romans. Their civilization, however, as- a European power with possessions in Asia. sumes a type presenting marked differences Great Britain, Russia, France, and Portugal

The

are therefore the only European powers who on the Euphrates, Tigris, and Orontes. Reëshold any portion of Asia. The principal polit- tablished Persia was merged in their dominions. ical divisions of Asia may be classified as fol- Sultan Mahmoud of Ghuzni conquered Afghanlows, placing the independent powers first in istan, and carried Mohammedanism beyond the the order of their importance, and grouping Indus. In the west of Asia the cross, about a some of the minor ones together: 1. China century later, began a deadly struggle with the proper, with the islands of Formosa and Hai- crescent, which lasted for ages, and terminated nan. Chinese dependencies: Thibet, Chinese with the total discomfiture of the crusaders. Tartary, Mongolia, Mantchooria, and Corea. 2. Turkish tribes, Seljuks and others, had in the Turkey in Asia: Asia Minor, Turkish Arme- meanwhile become the chief rulers of Moslem nia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Kurdistan, and part Asia. But now a vast human flood, under of Arabia. 3. Japan. 4. Persia. 5. Arabia. Genghis Khan, surged in from the plains of 6. Afghanistan, Herat, Beloochistan. 7. Fur- eastern Asia, overwhelmed China, India, and ther India: kingdoms of Anam, Burmah, and western Asia, and rolled on as far as the centre Siam. 8. Turkistan: khanates of Bokhara, of Europe, thus renewing the devastations of Khiva, Kokan, and Koondooz. 9. Russian the Huns and other northern Asiatic tribes Asia: Siberia, Amoor Country, Russian Tur- who desolated the West-Roman empire before kistan, Caucasia. 10. British India and na- its fall. The Mongols retired from Germany, tive states under British influence. 11. French but their yoke remained firmly fixed on Russia, possessions: Cochin China, Pondicherry. 12. where the Golden Horde held sway for more Portuguese possessions: Goa, Macao. Only than 200 years. In Bagdad they terminated roughly approximate statements of the area the dynasty of the Abbasside caliphs. At the and population of most of these divisions same epoch they established the successors of can be given, for which reference is made to Genghis Khan on the throne of Afghanistan the separate articles upon them.-Asia is re- and northern India, and thus gave rise to the garded as the birthplace of mankind. It is great empire of which Delhi afterward bethe cradle of all the great religious move- came the capital. The great body of the Monments-of Hindoo pantheism and Buddhism, gols themselves embraced Buddhism. Hebrew monotheism and Persian dualism, Mongols of India adopted Mohammedanism. Christianity and Mohammedanism-and the By the same irruptive movement, the native earliest seat of science and literature. Here dynasty of the Chinese was displaced, and a flourished in hoary antiquity the secluded em- Mongol line of sovereigns set up in their stead, pire of China, and the Aryan communities of whom Kublai Khan was the first and ablest. which produced Zoroaster and the Vedas, and The conquests of these fierce tribes, which had reared the stupendous monuments of Hindo- penetrated from the Chinese wall to Silesia stan. Asia was the seat of the Assyrian, Chal- and the shores of the Mediterranean, induced a dean, Median, Persian, Syrian, and Parthian feeling of terror in Christendom. Attempts empires. The names of Babylon and Nineveh, were made by missionaries, sent into the heart of Jerusalem, Sidon, Tyre, Palmyra, and Anti- of Asia, to establish friendly relations with the och, of Susa, Ecbatana, Persepolis, Ctesiphon, Mongols. Marco Polo also travelled in central and Seleucia, of Sardis, Ephesus, and Miletus, Asia and Mongolia, and, after residing for a keep before our minds the ancient glories of period at the court of Kublai Khan, the conAsiatic power and culture; while in after ages queror of China, brought home admirable acBagdad, Bassorah, Damascus, Aleppo, and even counts of central Asia, China, and India. The the distant Samarcand and Balkh in the wilds vast Mongolian empire of Genghis had, after of central Asia, bespeak the progress of Asi- a few generations, crumbled into pieces. The atic civilization and intelligence. Phoenicia tribes from whom the guards of the throne and was the great teacher of Greece and the oth- persons of the caliphs had been chosen had aser countries bordering on the Mediterranean. sumed the position of independent conquerors, When western civilization had been developed, and had founded the Ottoman empire. In Asia Minor was the theatre where Asia and 1299 Othman led his followers into the ancient Europe met. Persia and Hellas for a century province of Bithynia, nearly opposite Constantiand a half wrestled for supremacy, until semi- nople, and made Brusa his capital. Amurath Hellenic Macedonia established her sway over and his son Bajazet soon overran the provinces both. The Seleucidæ of Syria became the suc- of Asia Minor, and crossing into Europe poscessors of Alexander in the East, but finally sessed themselves of the Byzantine provinces. yielded to the Parthians on one side and the A new invasion of the Mongols under TamerRomans on the other. Rome extended her lane now swept over Asia and overthrew power to the Euphrates, and Asian Nicomedia Bajazet (1402), but Amurath II. restored the was for a time a favorite seat of her emperors. Ottoman power, and his successor Mohammed In neighboring Nicæa Constantine had the dog- II. established himself in Constantinople (1453). mas of her new religion, received from Jeru- Under Solyman the Magnificent (1520-'66), the salem, established. But Arabia produced a Ottoman empire reached its present limits, new faith and a new race of conquerors, and comprising Asia Minor, Syria, the country as far the caliphs triumphed over the Caesars of the as the Tigris, and a part of Arabia. A quarEast, and restored power to its ancient seats ter of a century after the permanent establish

ment of Mohammedanism in Constantinople, tended their dominions across the peninsula. Bernardo Diaz doubled the Cape of Good Hope In 1746, war having broken out between Eng(1486). Two years later Vasco da Gama ar- land and France, Labourdonnaie, the French rived at Calicut, and afterward Almeida and governor of Mauritius, conducted an expediAlbuquerque were sent out and formed Por- tion against Madras, the chief British settletuguese settlements, Goa being captured and ment in India, which capitulated on the undermade their capital (1510). At this period standing that it should be ransomed. Dupleix, China was in the hands of a Chinese dynasty, governor of the French settlement of Pondiwhich had been established in 1358 by the ex- cherry, conceived the scheme of consolidating tirpation of the Tartar rulers. In central Asia the states of Hindostan into one mighty empire, the thrones of Samarcand, Ispahan, Afghan- and with the aid of native allies was at first istan, and Khorasan were filled by descendants successful against the English; but Clive saved of Genghis or Tamerlane. A number of petty the menaced existence of the East India comchiefs maintained their independence; and the pany, and by 1760 the British had subdued the Uzbecks, the successors to the country of the finest provinces of Bengal, Behar, and part of Turks, harassed all the territories within their Orissa. From that time the limits of the reach. In Persia the first of the Sufi dynasty British empire in India have steadily increased. had just ascended the throne. Albuquerque A great revolt of the natives was put down directed a successful expedition against Ma- in 1857-'8, and the government was immelacca, where he received the submission of diately afterward transferred from the East Pegu and Siam. He also seized Ormuz at the India company directly to the crown.-In the mouth of the Persian gulf. A Portuguese north a few Cossacks brought Siberia under embassy was sent to China, and the Portuguese Russian dominion toward the close of the 16th having gained the favor of the court of Peking century, and Peter the Great obtained a footby extirpating a band of pirates that infested hold in central Asia by assisting the shah of the coast, permission was given them to settle Persia against the Afghans. A plot concocted at Macao. From this point and from Goa they with Turkey for the dismemberment of the directed their operations, and in 50 years were Persian kingdom was defeated by the energy masters of the Spice Islands, and monopolized of the usurper Nadir Shah, who for a brief the whole trade of the eastern ocean. The space restored the waning glories of the Persian subjugation of northern India by the emperor name, and passing the Indus pursued a career Baber in 1526, and a succession of able princes, of conquest as far as Delhi. During his return consolidated the empire of the Moguls in India. he was murdered by mutineers (1747), and again Abbas the Great, shah of Persia (1587-1628), the Persian empire was dismembered, Afghanraised the Persian empire to its highest pitch istan being erected into an independent kingof modern greatness.-The brilliant successes dom by Ahmed, one of Nadir's followers. The of the Portuguese in India inspired adventurers Russians have during the present century of other nations with hopes of wealth. But it gradually extended their power, consolidating was not till 1600 that the English East India their rule over the Caucasian regions, and accompany was formed, and in 1612 English quiring new possessions on the Aras, the factories were established by leave of the Amoor, and the Jaxartes. Turkey has had native authorities at Surat, Ahmedabad, Cam- conflicts with Russia, Persia, and her own bay, and Gogo. In 1644 the native dynasty vassal, Mehemet Ali of Egypt, but has esof the Chinese was terminated by the rebellion caped without a considerable loss of terriof the mandarin Li-tse-ching, and the Man- tory. Persia has been constantly declining, tehoo Tartars again ruled the vast empire of and has lately suffered a terrible depopulation China. About the same time the settlement from famine. China has seen foreign enemies of Madras was founded by the East India com- in her capital, and half her territory ravaged pany, and subsequently the factory at Cal- by a powerful insurrection. Japan has been cutta; and in 1661 the Portuguese ceded to compelled to open her ports and cities to the the English the island of Bombay. The East abhorred occidentals. Afghanistan has been India company, which had been unsuccessful torn by foreign and domestic wars. Arabia as a trading undertaking, was reorganized, and has witnessed the overthrow of the Wahabites, in 1708 a new body of adventurers was formed, and several minor conflicts, but is on the whole and admitted to a participation in its rights as isolated and unsubdued as ever. What was and privileges. This body was destined before formerly Independent Tartary is now half rethe lapse of a century to acquire and con- duced by Russia. The political influences of solidate a larger and more powerful empire Asia are balanced by British supremacy in the than had ever been governed by the Moguls in south and Russian in the north. These two India. Dutch and French trading companies great powers have long antagonized each other had also obtained a footing in India. On the at the court of Persia, the key to central Asia death of Aurungzebe in 1707, the affairs of the and northern India. In China, Russian influempire had rapidly fallen into confusion. The ence is perhaps greater than that of any other various rajahs became virtually independent, nation. In the west, Turkey keeps up the apand the Mahrattas, who first appeared as free-pearance of a great power, but her influence in booters during the reign of Aurungzebe, ex- general Asiatic affairs is a cipher.

portion constitutes the district called Anatolia, or Natolia, from the old Greek name given to Asia Minor-'Avaroh, the east or land of the rising sun. Officially, it includes several eyalets, but the name Anatolia is generally applied to the whole region. For details as to its present condition, see TURKEY.

ASINAIS, a tribe of Indians on Trinity river, Texas, frequently mentioned in accounts of La Salle's expedition and early Louisiana history under the name of Cenis. They were a branch of the confederation known as the Texas, were sedentary, cultivating rudely maize, beans, squashes, melons, and tobacco, and making mats and earthenware. They lived in large beehive-shaped cabins, each holding 15 or 20 families, and at a very early day procured horses from the Spaniards to use in war and hunting. La Salle visited them in 1686, and the French subsequently, under La Harpe and St. Denis, tried to gain them; but the Spaniards established missions and posts among them in 1715. Before the close of the century they ceased to be noticed as a separate tribe, and are now apparently extinct, unless they are represented by the Arapahoes.

were three other divisions: Mysia, including the plain of Troy and the royal city of Pergamus, in the district of Teuthrania; Lydia (capital, Sardis), whose founders, the Lydians, were probably a Semitic people, who established the first enduring empire of which we have authentic record in Asia Minor; and Caria, settled, according to Herodotus, by colonists from the islands of the Ægean. On the W. coast also, and within the boundaries of the three divisions just named, were the famous Greek colonies of Æolis, lying principally in S. W. Mysia, Doris in southern Caria, and between the two Ionia, with its confederation of twelve cities (Phocæa, Smyrna, Ephesus, Miletus, &c.), peopled by Greek colonists, according to tradition emigrants from Attica in the obscure time of Codrus, who here maintained the reputation of their race for progress and civilization. On the S. coast were Lycia; Pamphylia, so called from the number of tribes composing its inhabitants (Пáuovo, people of all races); Pisidia, parallel with and just N. of the narrow coast strip of Pamphylia; and Cilicia, with the city of Tarsus, in ancient times peopled by the most formidable pirates of the East. The inland districts were Phrygia, whose inhabitants claimed to be autochthonous; Galatia, named after the Gauls who deserted the army of the later Brennus to settle here; Cappadocia (capital, Mazaca, now Kaisariyeh), first ruled by the Medes, afterward by the Persians; Isauria, peopled by a tribe of mountaineers dreaded as daring robbers; and Lycaonia, first mentioned by Xenophon, and inhabited by an ancient tribe from whom it took its name.-In reviewing its history Asia Minor cannot be treated as a united whole; for details concerning its different divisions the titles just given are referred to. The following outline, however, may serve to show how inextricably its fortunes are complicated with those of the great nations which for 3,000 years contended for its dominion. Though the traditions regarding its first settlement are obscure, it appears that the Lydians, coming from the east, were among the first inhabitants of the country. Their government is at all events the first of which we have any detailed record. It flourished until King Croesus was defeated by Cyrus, and the Persian empire gained the dominion of the peninsula, holding it from about 554 to 333 B. C. The campaign which in the ASMODÆUS, or Asmodi (Heb. Ashmedai, from last-mentioned year ended with the battle of shamad, to destroy), an evil demon mentioned Issus now added the country to the conquests in the later Jewish writers. In the book of of Alexander. It remained under his various Tobit he is described as murdering the seven successors until the victories of L. Scipio (190) husbands of Sarah, one after the other. In and Manlius (189), followed by the treaty with consequence of this he has been facetiously Antiochus in 188, the bequest of the kingdom termed the evil spirit of marriage, or the deof Pergamus to Rome by Attalus III. (133), mon of divorce. In the Talmud he figures as and the overthrow of Mithridates (65 B. C.) the prince of demons, and is said to have driven gave the territory to the Romans, in whose Solomon out of his kingdom. Tobit got rid of hands, and those of their followers of the By-him by prayer and fasting. Asmodæus is the zantine empire, it continued till its conquest by hero of Le Sage's novel Le diable boiteux. the Turks in the 13th century.-Asia Minor now forms a part of Turkey in Asia; its larger

ASKEW, Ascough, or Ayscough, Anne, an English Protestant lady, a native of Lincolnshire, who was burned at Smithfield, July 16, 1546. Her husband, named Kyme, was a strong Catholic, and turned her out of doors because she embraced the principles of the reformers. She went to London to sue for a separation, and attracted the sympathy of the queen, Catharine Parr, and many of the court ladies. Her denial of the corporeal presence of Christ's body in the eucharist caused her arrest and committal to prison. Burnet says that after much pains she signed a recantation, but this did not save her. She was recommitted to Newgate, and asked to disclose who were her correspondents at court. She refused to reply, though she was racked in the presence of the lord chancellor. As she was not able to stand after the torture, she was carried in a chair to the stake, and suffered along with four others, undergoing this last trial with signal fortitude.

ASMANNSHAUSEN, a village of Prussia, province of Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine, 2 m. below Rüdesheim; pop. about 600. It is famous for the wine of Asmannshausen, one of the best red Rhenish wines.

ASMONEANS, or Hasmoneans (Heb. 'Hashmonaim), the name of a Jewish priestly family