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kaute or kōte, the Kyōtō colloquial corruption of kaite, “buying," etc., are sometimes met with.

V. The verbs aku, “to be satiated"; karu, "to borrow "; shimu, "to penetrate "; and taru, "to suffice," belong in the written language to the 1st conjugation,-not, as in the Tōkyō colloquial, to the 3rd, (akiru, kariru, shimiru, and tariru). Thus: Shinzuru ni tarazu, (not tarizu), "It is not worthy of credence."

VI. The only genuinely irregular verbs in modern written use are the following:

Aru, "to be," conclusive present ari (identical with the indefinite form), instead of aru. No perfect tense. Otherwise conjugated regularly according to 1st conjugation from stem ar.

Keru, to kick, conclusive and attributive present both keru (instead of ku and kuru respectively). Inflections in u replaced by inflections in e, thus: conditional kereba, concessive keredomo, potential ke-beku, negative imperative keru nakare. Otherwise conjugated regularly according to 2nd conjugation with the single letter k as its stem.

Kuru, "to come," conjugated according to 3rd conjugation from stem k, except in the following tenses. Affirmative voice attributive form of first past kishi or koshi; conclusive forms of first and second past not in use; future kon; past conditional kishikaba or koshikaba; present hypothetical koba; optative kobaya; past concessive kishikadomo or kishikadomo; imperative koyo. Irregularities of negative voice: all the tenses down to first form of imperative have o instead of i, thus kozu, kozaru, konu, etc.; fourth imperative form ku-na; illative forms also have o for i, as kozari-keri, etc. Kuru is frequently supplanted by kitaru, properly the second past of kuru, but used as an independent verb of the 1st conjugation,

and inflected regularly through all the moods and tenses, thus kitareri, kitariki, kitaritari, etc., etc.

Naru, "to be," indefinite form and gerund nite; present conclusive nari (instead of naru). No perfect tense. Otherwise conjugated regularly according to 1st conjugation from stem nar. Do not confound the irregular verb naru, "to be," with naru, "to become," which latter is a regular verb of the 1st conjugation. They are easily distingushed, as naruto be is never preceded by one or other of the postpositions ni and to, whereas naru, "to become," is always so preceded, thus:

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Hanjo naru tofu, "a prosperous town"; more lit. a prospers town," i.e. "a town which prospers." (This is the attributive form of naru, "to be.")

Hanjo ni naru tofu, a town which is becoming prosper(Attributive form of naru, " to become.")

ous.

Tofu hanjo nari, "the town is prosperous." (Conclusive form of naru, "to be.")

Tofu hanjo ni naru, "the town is becoming prosperous." (Conclusive form of naru, "to become.")

Shikaru, "to be thus."

Being a contraction of shika aru, it is conjugated like aru. The like-sounding shikaru, "to scold," is a regular verb of the 1st conjugation.

Shinuru, "to die," present attributive shinuru (for shinu). Otherwise conjugated regularly according to 1st conjugation from stem shin. It is not much used, the Chinese equivalent shi suru being preferred.

Sōrō, see Chapter X.

Suru, "to do," conjugated according to the 3rd conjugation, except in the following tenses: Affirmative: conclusive perfect seri; attributive perfect seru; conclusive first past seshi; future sen; past conditional seshikaba or shitureba; present

hypothetical seba or senaba; optative sebaya; past concessive seshikadomo, seshi to iedomo, etc.; imperative seyo. Negative: all the tenses down to first form of imperative have e instead of i, thus sezu, sezaru, senu, etc.; fourth imperative su-na; illative forms also have e for i, as sezari-keri, etc.-In many compounds suru is nigori'ed (see page 3), that is to say that 8 is changed into z, and sh into j throughout the whole conjugation, thus: ronzuru, "to discuss "; indefinite ronji; conclusive present ronzu; perfect ronzeri and ronzeru, etc.— Do not confound the irregular verb suru, "to do," with suru, "to rub," which is a regular verb of the 1st conjugation.

Uru, "to get" (colloquial eru). Its sole irregularity is that it has (in appearance at least) no stem, the real stem being the single letter y, which has vanished. It consists of the mere terminations of the paradigm of the 2nd conjugation given on pages 54 to 57, thus: indefinite form e; present tense u and uru, etc. It must not be confounded with uru, "to sell," which is a regular verb of the first conjugation.

Uryōru, "to grieve," indefinite form uree or urei; attributive present uryōru; conclusive present uryō; potential tenses uryō-beku, etc. Otherwise it is conjugated regularly as a verb of the 2nd conjugation from the stem ure.

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The Japanese language has no special conjugation for the passive voice. All so-called passive verbs belong to the second active conjugation, and are inflected according to the paradigm given on pages 54 to 57. They are derived from the corresponding active verbs according to the following rule :

In verbs of the 1st conjugation add aruru, in the 2nd conjugation eraruru, in the 3rd iraruru, and in the 4th raruru to the stem, Thus in the 1st conjugation;

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In the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th conjugations:

homuru, "to praise "; homeraruru, "to get praised."

uramuru, "to hate ";

miru,

"to see ";

uramiraruru, "to get hated."
miraruru, “to get seen.”

(The corresponding colloquial forms are kirareru, matareru, warawareru, etc.).

The following passives (or potentials) in common use are formed irregularly:

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Though formed irregularly from their stems, they are conjugated regularly, like all other passives and potentials, as verbs of the 2nd conjugation.

A glance at the origin of the Japanese passive will furnish the student with a key to all the difficulties connected with it. Properly speaking, the so-called passive is not a passive at all, but simply an active in disguise. Such a form as utaruru, for instance, was originally uchi ari uru, as literally as possible "to get being beating," i. e. "to get a beating," or "to get beaten." Hence its place in the 2nd active conjugation along with the verb uru, "to get"; and hence the fact that intransitive verbs can have passive forms, as : Oite ko ni shinaruru yori kanashiki wa nashi, "There is nothing sadder than to have one's child die when one is old." (The Japanese idiom

For such euphonic changes as the omission of the s in mataruru and the insertion of the w in warawaruru, see page 7.

seems at first sight to be "to be died by one's child.") Hence too the frequent use of the postposition wo with these socalled passive verbs. Thus: Shin-Futsu jiken ni tamashii wo ubawarete, "Their whole attention being absorbed by the Franco-Chinese complication," more literally "Having got their whole spirit absorbed, etc." In this and all similar contexts where passive verbs are used, what is the subject of the true English passive is the object of the Japanese quasi-passive. The sentence may, or may not, have another subject expressed. Generally, as here, it has not, few Japanese sentences of any sort having subjects properly socalled. (See Syntax. sect. 6 and also page 31).

The word "by" in English passive phrases is expressed in Japanese by ni, thus: Inu ni ashi wo kui-tsukaruru, “To be bitten in the leg by a dog," more literally, "To get one's leg bitten by a dog."

To the origin of the passive verb in an active form can likewise be traced the alternative use of the passive as a potential. Take for instance miraruru, lit. "to get a seeing." This form is naturally susceptible of two shades of meaning, which are either I "to get a seeing from someone else,” i.e. "to get seen"; or II "to get a seeing oneself," i.e. "to be able to see." Similarly with seraruru, the passive of the irregular verb suru, "to do." Signifying originally "to get a doing," it may mean either "to have something done to one," or "to be able to do."

From its use as a potential the use of the passive as an honorific is but a step, it being naturally considered more polite to intimate that an exalted personage is able to perform a certain action, than bluntly to assert that he does it himself. This honorific use is the commonest use of the forms under consideration. Thus: Waga seifu wa kanarazu Shina seifu ni

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