took the place of paganism, but for a long time it needed prohibitions and menaces of punishment in order to destroy the character of heathenism which still adhered to many of their ceremonies. The Christian. religion was peculiarly adapted to the Frith-gild system; the elements of socialism and communism taught by the early Christian missionaries, and practised by them, and which afterwards led to the institution of monasticism, gave a mighty impulse to the spread of gilds all over Europe, and these in their turn assisted in the early propagation of the new faith, and aided materially in firmly establishing Christianity.

§ 12. The oldest, most reliable, and detailed accounts which we have of gilds, consist of three gild statutes, the drawing up of which took place in the beginning of the eleventh century. In the case of one of these gilds, it was founded, and richly endowed by Orcy, a friend of Canute the Great, at Abbotsbury, in honour of God and St. Peter. Its object, according to the statutes, appears to have been the support and nursing of infirm gildbrothers, the burial of the dead, the performance of religious services, and the saying of prayers for their souls. The association met every year on the feast of St. Peter for united worship in honour of their patron saint. Besides this there was a common meal, and in order that the poor might also have their share in the joys of the festival, they received alms on the day of the feast, for which purpose the gild-brothers were obliged to furnish contributions of bread. Guests were only admitted to the common meal by the permission of the master and steward.

§ 13. The Exeter-gild, whose statutes have likewise been preserved, was altogether of the same character. Here, however, association for the purpose of worship. and prayer, stands out more prominently as the object

of the brotherhood than in the former case. In this instance the gild-brothers assembled together to worship and pray for the well-being of their living and dead fellow-members three times every year, every such service being followed by a meal in common. When any brother died, every member was obliged to perform special devotions for the departed soul. The mutual care of the brothers for each other was shown by money contributions in case of death, and in support of those who went on a journey, and of those who suffered loss by fire.

§14. The statutes of the Cambridge-gild were somewhat different from the two above mentioned, for by the oath which every member had to take on the relics of the patron saint of the gild, they swore faithful brotherhood towards each other, not only in religious matters, but in secular matters also; and although the statutes secured for the gild-brothers the same support in case of sickness and death as those of Abbotsbury and Exeter, and, like those, contained regulations with reference to alms, divine worship, and feasts, yet these objects were but secondary in comparison with the measures for the protection of the members of the gild against criminals, and even against the evil consequences of their own wrong-doing. To effect these objects a complete organisation existed, and a system of regulations were framed for the purpose of carrying them out. If a gild-brother required help, an inferior officer of the gild, living nearest to him, had to hasten to his aid; if the officer failed in this he was liable to punishment, as also in like manner was the head of the gild if he neglected to afford the required help. If a gild-brother was robbed, the whole gild had to assist him in obtaining compensation from the guilty party; so every gildbrother had to help if a member himself had to make

atonement for killing a man. If, however, he had no justifiable motive for committing the act, if he had not been provoked to it in a quarrel, if he was not under an obligation to execute vengeance, but had slain the man from malice, he had himself to bear the consequences of the deed. If one gild-brother killed another he had first to reconcile himself with the kinsman of the murdered man, and had moreover to pay eight pounds to the gild, failing which he was shut out from the society, and the members of the gild were forbidden to hold friendly intercourse with him. In like manner, an insult offered by one gild-brother to another was severely punished. In cases of violence and damage to property which one member might have suffered from the servant of another, the master of the servant was answerable for him, and was sued by the society for compensation in case of non-payment. It was, moreover, a leading principle of the fraternity, to which every member had to bind himself by oath, always to support him who had right on his side.

§ 15. The essence of the manifold regulations in these three gild-statutes appears to be the brotherly banding together, into close unions, between man and man, sometimes even established on, and fortified by oath, for the purpose of mutual help and support. This essential characteristic is found in all the gilds of every age, from those first known to us in detail to their descendants of the present day, the modern Trade Unions. The objects, arrangements, and rules of these fraternities varied according to the wants, interests, and requirements of the times and circumstances. The practice of periodical assemblies by the gild-brothers for the common feast was well-nigh universal, whatever other differences might exist either as to organisation or aims.

§ 16. The numerous ordinances and charters of the early English gilds disentombed by Mr. Toulmin Smith, and published by the Early Text Society, still further illustrate this phase of our history: they give a clear outline of their principal features, and it will be found that they agree in all their leading characteristics, although modified to suit the time, place, and other conditions. These records embrace the 'Returns made into Chancery in the twelfth year of Richard II.'s reign of the original objects, endowments, and extent of gilds generally,' and many others from sources not before known. The value and importance of these documents are as yet imperfectly known; they have been used freely throughout this chapter, wherever they assist in throwing a light on the matter discussed.

PART II.-Religious and Social Gilds.

§ 17. The German tribes having settled in fixed abodes, it became customary among the families dwelling in a particular district to unite themselves into common sacrificial assemblies; those taking part in them had to bring their food and drink, from which circumstance these unions were called gilds. With the introduction of Christianity, and its attendant religious fraternities, the earlier and the newer form of religious association became blended until the latter absorbed the pagan sacrificial societies, and supplanted them, by substituting in their stead the more humane forms of Christian worship for the heathen sacrifices which preceded it. From the unions thus formed arose the religious gilds of the middle ages.

§ 18. The earliest distinct information which is furnished to us with regard to these gilds is contained in

the capitularies of Archbishop Hincmar, of Rheims, in the year 858, in which we find that there were two kinds of religious gilds, one among the laymen, the other among the clergy. In the capitulary relating to laymen the Bishop gives instructions to the clergy with regard to the solemnities to be observed at their meetings, in general terms that only those things should be done which were compatible with their dignity, and required by reason of their utility and the circumstances. More definitely, he says that 'They shall unite for every exercise of religion, that is to say, they shall unite for offerings, for mutual assistance, for funeral services for the dead, for alms, and other deeds of piety.' On the other hand, he forbids feastings, drinking bouts, and other heathenisms,' and very precise directions are given with regard to the carrying out of these provisions, many of the prohibitions being mentioned in detail.

§ 19. In the middle ages these fraternities were very numerous in all countries, and especially in those under the sway of Roman Catholicism-even now, in certain forms, they exist in several of such countries; these brotherhoods flourished in large numbers in almost every town-British and Continental. In Norwich there were 12; in King's Lynn 12; in Bishop's Lynn 9; there were 80 in Cologne; 70 in Lübeck; 100 in Hamburg.

§ 20. A slight difference of opinion appears to exist as to whether these gilds should be called religious or social, or both. Mr. Toulmim Smith calls them social gilds, in this Mr. F. J. Furnival agrees; Dr. Brentano, on the contrary, thinks that the proper term to be applied to them is religious gilds, inasmuch as their principal objects were essentially of a religious character, the social provisions being subsidiary thereto; whereas in the other kinds of gilds, political and industrial objects were