the more prominent features, the religious exercises being common to all, as well as the social principles upon which they were based. Dr. Brentano contends that the term 'religious' is historically correct, because, in the sense in which it was at that time used, it embraced the practice of those virtues which are denominated Christian, although now many of the objects enumerated would be classified as social, which were then comprehended under the one term religious, in its wider signification and application.

§ 21. In all places their objects and organisations were identical, and these remained essentially unchanged, during successive centuries, in all countries alike. The objects of these gilds were:-(1) To unite in every exercise of religion, the performance of religious ceremonies, and in honour of saints. Everywhere they

were under the patronage of certain saints, or of some other religious mystery. The use of candles was an early institution in these gilds; in some it appears to have been their only object; in one instance, at least, it seems to have originated an entire gild. In this case it arose out of a drinking-bout, where several merchants and shopmen having been drinking together, and having settled their score, six shillings remained over, with which they resolved to buy a candle to burn before the image of the Virgin Mary. From this simple and insignificant circumstance arose a gild which rapidly increased in numbers and wealth, with a regular constitution, a gild-book, and aldermen at its head. But besides the setting up of candles, the members united for special devotions to their patron saints, in whose honour masses were said, and went in solemn procession to their churches on the days of their feasts. Even in these early times conventions were not uncommon between the several religious gilds, as, for example, one

was held between the saddlers of London and the canons of St. Martin-le-Grand, by which the former were admitted into brotherhood and partnership of masses, orisons, and other good deeds with the canons. The members were obliged to engage in devotions and services for the souls of their departed brethren, and often, also, to aid pilgrims and pilgrimages to the Holy Land, and to other places.

$ 22. (2). These gilds were instituted for the purposes of Christian charity, for the mutual assistance of each other in all cases of emergency-in old age, sickness, poverty, if not brought on by their own folly, of wrongful imprisonment, losses by fire, flood, or shipwreck; aid by loans, provision of work, and, lastly, burial of the dead. They further included the assistance of the poor and sick, and the visitation and comfort of prisoners, who were not members of the gild.

§ 23. (3). The advancement of education was not forgotten, for we find among the objects of these religious gilds provision for the aid of poor scholars, the maintenance of schools, and the payment of schoolmasters.

§ 24. (4). Sometimes a gild was founded for a special purpose, such as the Corpus Christi gild at York, where all the crafts joined in a procession for the celebration of the consecrated host, which is one of the greatest feasts of the Roman Catholic Church.

§ 25. (5). There were also gilds for the representation of religious plays, which were common in all countries during the middle ages. Of this class may be mentioned the Gild of the Lord's Prayer at York, the Gilds of St. Elene, of St. Mary, and of Corpus Christi at Beverley.

$ 26. (6). The performance of secular plays and pastimes was also the object of some gilds, as, for instance, the gild at Stamford, and at Rouen.

§ 27. (7). All objects of common interest, for which in these days special societies and associations are established, such as benefit societies and insurance companies, were provided for by the gilds of the middle ages, the motive and principle of such union being Christian charity, instead of, as now, profit. Similar in

stitutions still exist in many Catholic countries.

§ 28. As a rule, people of all ranks took part in the religious gilds; sometimes, however, people out of a certain rank were not admitted, or special regulations were made in regard to their admission. This is well illustrated in the ordinances of the Gild of St. Michael, at Lincoln, founded on Easter-eve, A.D. 1350, in which it is stated that 'whereas this gild was founded by folks of common and middling rank, it is ordained that no one of the rank of mayor or bailiff shall become a brother of the gild, unless he is found to be of humble, good, and honest conversation, and is admitted by the choice and common consent of the brethren and sisteren of the gild.' It was further provided that no one shall have any claim to office in this gild on account of the honour and dignity of his personal rank.'

§ 29. In some cases there were special liveries for the gild; these were to be worn at their feasts, at which drinking-bouts were sometimes so general that direct references are made to them in the gild-statutes, in which it is stated that 'not eating and drinking, but mutual assistance and justice, were the principal objects of the gild.'

§30. The expenses for attaining the objects of these gilds were obtained by means of entrance fees, contributions, gifts and legacies of members. Sometimes the contributions were fixed, at other times they varied according to the wants and requirements of the fra ternity,

§ 31. The organisation of these religious gilds was the same as that of all other gilds down to the time of their latest representatives, the modern trade-unions; the officers were chosen at their meetings, and fines were inflicted for not accepting office when elected. Often the members had on their admission to declare by oath that they would fulfil all their obligations.

§ 32. Persons of ill-repute were not admitted, and members guilty of misconduct were to be excluded. Rules were made and enforced with regard to proper behaviour, and even as to decent dress, at gild-meetings, some of which regulations are to be found even to this day.

$ 33. Disputes among the members were to be decided by the gild, and disclosing the affairs of the fraternity was to be severely punished. Both of these regulations are still extant in the modern trade-union.

§ 34. In those places where the gild had no special hall of its own, its meetings were often held in the Town Hall, which shows that these ancient fraternities enjoyed a high consideration, and were held in good repute in those days.

§ 35. As to the gilds among the clergy, the capitularies contain ordinances against the extravagances of priests at funeral meals, and at the usual feastings. No priest was to get drunk, nor was he to empty goblets to the health of saints, or to the soul of the deceased; neither was he to force others to drink, or get drunk at the desire of others. They were not to burst out into indecent noise, or roaring laughter, nor sing vain songs, or tell inane jokes; neither were they to allow scandalous performances of bears or female dancers to be made before them, nor delight in mummeries, 'because this was heathenish and forbidden by the Canon law.' And further, they were not on every occasion to provoke

each other, or anybody else, to passion and quarrels, and still less to fighting and murder; nor was he who was provoked to assail at once his provoker. The priests were further charged to breakfast with honesty and the fear of God; holy stories and admonitions were to be read, and hymns sung, and everyone was to go home in good time. Exactly the same ordinances are also contained in the capitularies of Bishop Walter of Orleans, dated in the same year (858). These documents give us a curious glimpse into the character of the priesthood of those early times, and it is, to say the least of it, somewhat singular that these special charges, as to the extravagances usual at these feasts, are addressed, not to the laity, but to the clergy.

§ 36. In later times the clergy assembled on the first day of each month for divine service, for deliberation on their interests, and for common meals, from whence they formed themselves into special fraternities, which were called the Gilds of the Kalenders,' from their meetings on the first of each month. The objects of these gilds were subsequently extended to the exercise of any good works, especially towards the gild-brothers themselves, the assistance of the poor, the furnishing of church attire, keeping old records, and the maintenance of schools. These fraternities were originally confined to the clergy, but later on laymen were admitted to take part in them. The number of members in these gilds was often limited, sometimes to twelve, at other times to twenty-four, in which case the proportion between lay and clerical members was fixed. The laymen, however, held a subordinate position; they occupied separate seats at the meals, and they had no vote in the deliberations. In 1422, the wives of laymen were admitted to the meals, but only on condition that the one whose turn it was should provide the meal, and wait at table.