and at the same time it contained the conditions under which he was bound to his master. Henceforward the apprentice was admitted into the family of his master, by whom he was instructed in his trade, and the master was held responsible for his morals, as well as his work, during the period of his apprenticeship. At the expiration of the term he was admitted as a member of the gild with special forms and ceremonies, and he became a citizen of the town. On both occasions fees had to be paid; in London they were 2s. 6d. when bound, and 3s. 4d. on admission as a member of the gild. § 100. These gilds not only tried to secure good workmen, but they also sought to procure tools, and proper materials. No member of the gild was allowed to possess tools, unless the same were testified to be good and honest,' and regulations, the most minute, were made in the statutes with reference to methods of working. It was specially forbidden, in the strongest terms, to mix inferior things with a better sort, to the detriment of the buyer, or to sell patched up articles as new, so as to impose on the purchaser. What a flutter there would be in our day amongst manufacturers in Lancashire and elsewhere, if similar restrictions were imposed; we should have no end of protestations, and declarations, against ruining the trade of the country, and losing the markets of the world. It is useless to speculate, however, for that time is not yet come. Measures were also taken to protect the public against the spoiling of materials entrusted to the workmen for manufacture. Provisions were also made directing the gild-brothers to assist a member who did not know how to go on with his work, in order that it might not be spoiled. Such directions were frequent among the masons, special guarantees being often given for the completion of the work. Subject to these and similar regulations, and some sanitary measures for ensuring cleanliness in carrying on the craft, all members of the gild were allowed to sell their wares within the precincts. of the town, without any other control except that of the gild. § 101. The gild-statutes always ordain that no one 'shall work longer than from the beginning of the day to curfew,' nor 'at night by candle-light.' The ostensible reason for these prohibitions was to secure good workmanship, but it is easy to see that the real object was to secure leisure, and prevent the over-zealous competition of the few. Similar restrictions were made with regard to holidays and festivals; there was a strict prohibition of Sunday work from religious motives, and the Saturday half-holiday was general in all countries. This had its origin in Catholic countries from the custom of holding religious services on the eve of festivals and Sundays. English workmen lost their Saturday half-holiday at the Reformation, but recently they have managed in the majority of trades to regain it. § 102. Other measures were provided for the purpose of preventing a ruinous competition amongst gild brothers as being contrary to the spirit of the brotherhood, the ordinances being framed for the 'better relief and comodytie of the poorer sorte.' No gild brother was to entice away another's customers or servants; and the statutes forbad a member from working for a customer who was still indebted to a brother. § 103. There are many peculiar regulations to be found in some of the gild statutes, the number of servants are by some restricted, in others the prices of wares were regulated under the supervision of the town authorities; any brother becoming poor from 'adventures on the sea, or the advanced price of merchandise, or by borrowing and pledging, or by any other misfortunes,' might claim to be relieved in proportion to the gild funds. Even as late as 1723 the bye-laws of the gild of the carpenters and joiners of Worcester ordained 'that wherever any freeman buys any parcel of timber or boards coming to the city to be sold and fit for the crafts, every freeman may have a share therein, not exceeding a third, at cost price, on request, and paying ready money, under penalty of 20s. for refusing to share.' $104. So long as any members were out of work, no brother was permitted to work with a non-member. But they were always allowed to employ their wives, children, and servants, for the whole of the household belonged to the gilds; they were, however, not allowed to work with other women. At this time the manufactures were chiefly domestic, and hence by means of these regulations the gilds often degenerated into family coteries. If a gild brother died, the widow could continue to carry on the trade and remain in the gild; if she again married a man of the same trade she conferred on him the freedom of the gild, but if she married one of another trade she was excluded. § 105. Members were forbidden to offer insults, or to ill-use a brother, or to appear before a court of justice in case of disputes about debts or other matters, unless every part of the transaction had been first examined by the wardens, and compromise appeared impossible: their rules, moreover, contained provisions relating to their domestic conduct towards each other, and prohibiting unneighbourly tricks. § 106. These gilds stood in the same relationship to their members as the head of the family, each and all were equally provided for and assisted; but besides looking after the temporal welfare of the members, they were to some extent also religious fraternities in this respect the craft-gilds of all countries were alike. They chose particular saints for their patrons, they founded masses, erected altars, and in churches and cathedrals put up painted windows where to-day their coats of arms range proudly by the side of kings and barons. In later times they went in solemn processions to their churches, and even now, in country villages, some of the local clubs do the same. They had their ordinances for the support of the sick and poor, and settled homes for some of the distressed. Every year special masses were said for the dead, the names of all the departed gild-brothers being mentioned in these services, and on the death of any brother special services were held for his soul and alms were distributed to the poor who in return had to offer up prayer for the departed member. § 107. Sometimes we find several craft-gilds belonging to the same trade in one town; as, for instance, in London there were two farmers'-gilds, one without Newgate, the other without Cripplegate; similarly there were four weavers'-gilds at Cologne in the thirteenth century. The same thing exists in trade unions to-day; and like them there was a tendency to unite or confederate, as the Cologne weavers did in 1396, and the fullers and shearmen in London in 1527. In some cases they formed large amalgamations like the engineers and carpenters do now over the entire country; in 1361 the tailors' union in Germany extended to twenty-five Silesian towns. Nearly a century later the cutlers' gilds in Germany united into four great fraternities at Augsburg, Munich, Bâle, and Heidelburg, by whom all disputes, which could not be settled by the separate gilds or by their presidents, were legally decided. But the most renowned of these confederations was that of the building lodges of Germany. This was effected in 1452; two years later the common statutes were discussed and passed at a general meeting at Ratisbon; these were subsequently revised and confirmed. Four central lodges were created each with a separate district, Strasburg having the precedence, the other three being Cologne, Vienna, and Zurich. The government of these confederations was almost identical with that of the amalgamated societies in our own day, not in general principles only, but also in the details of management. § 108. Regulations were made in the gild-statutes with regard to the relationship of masters and servants; masters were prohibited from engaging the servant of another before the expiration of his servitude, or so long as the former master had a claim on him; the number of servants allowed was defined; punishments were inflicted on masters who kept back their servants' wages; and it is probable that the wages were fixed by the wardens, by whom also all disputes were to be decided. 109. There was, however, no real working-class, in the sense in which it is now understood, for most of the craftsmen were small masters, with one or two apprentices, who, as soon as their apprenticeship expired, would work at their handicraft on their own account. The chief exception to this rule was in the Belgian towns where the manufacture of cloth was carried on for an extended market and on a larger scale. And here the servants, by their delegates, had a voice in making the ordinances for the regulation of the trade, and even in the supervision of the labour, and fixing the proportion of their pay. In some places the servants had an actual share in the masters' profits. Even where the woollen manufactures were entirely in the hands of the patricians no regulations were framed without previous consultation with the servants. There was at this time no question at all about separate interests, and no ideas of distinct classes such as we see now-capitalists and workmen. § 110. The contests of the craft-gilds were not consequently struggles for equality of labour and capital, |