great and superhuman endowments. But as to the whole system of the Cynics; we are absolutely to reject it, because it is inconsistent with moral susceptibility without which nothing can be honest, nothing can be virtuous.

Now it is our duty to esteem and to honor, in the same manner as if they were dignified with titles or vested with command, those men whose lives have been conspicuous for great and glorious actions, who feel rightly toward the state and deserve well or have deserved well of their country. We are likewise to have a great regard for old age, to pay a deference to magistrates; to distinguish between (what we owe to) a fellow-citizen and a foreigner, and to consider whether that foreigner comes in a public or a private capacity. In short, not to dwell on particulars, we ought to regard, to cultivate, and to promote the good will and the social welfare of all mankind.

XLII. Now with regard to what arts and means of acquiring wealth are to be regarded as worthy and what disreputable, we have been taught as follows. In the first place, those sources of emolument are condemned that incur the public hatred; such as those of tax-gatherers and usurers. We are likewise to account as ungenteel and mean the gains of all hired workmen, whose source of profit is not their art but their labor; for their very wages are the consideration of their servitude. We are likewise to despise all who retail from merchants goods for prompt sale; for they never can succeed unless they lie most abominably. Now nothing is more disgraceful than insincerity. All mechanical laborers are by their profession mean. For a workshop can contain nothing befitting a gentleman. Least of all are those trades.

such as piety to God, bounty to the poor, forgiveness of injuries, education of children, gratitude to benefactors. The law never speaks but to command, nor commands but where it can compel; consequently those duties, which by their nature must be voluntary, are left out of the statute-book, as lying beyond the reach of its operation and authority. 2. Human laws permit, or, which is the same thing, suffer to go unpunished, many crimes, because they are incapable of being defined by any previous description. Of which nature are luxury, prodigality, partiality in voting at those elections in which the qualifications of the candidate ought to determine the success, caprice in the disposition of men's fortunes at their death, disrespect to parents, and a multitude of similar examples."-" Moral and Political Philosophy," book i. caps. 2 & 3.

to be approved that serve the purposes of sensuality, such as (to speak after Terence) fishmongers, butchers, cooks, pastry-cooks, and fishermen; to whom we shall add, if you please, perfumers, dancers, and the whole tribe of gamesters.1

But those professions that involve a higher degree of intelligence or a greater amount of utility, such as medicine, architecture, the teaching the liberal arts, are honorable in those to whose rank in life they are suited. As to merchandizing, if on a small scale it is mean; but if it is extensive and rich, bring numerous commodities from all parts of the world, and giving bread to numbers without fraud, it is not so despicable. But if a merchant, satiated, or rather satisfied with his profits, as he sometimes used to leave the open sea and make the harbor, shall from the harbor step into an estate and lands; such a man seems most justly deserving of praise. For of all gainful professions, nothing is better, nothing more pleasing, nothing more delightful, nothing better becomes a well-bred man than agriculture. But as I have handled that subject at large in my Cato Major, you can draw from thence all that falls under this head.

XLIII. I have I think sufficiently explained in what manner the duties are derived from the constituent parts of virtue. Now it often may happen that an emulation and a contest may arise among things that are in themselves virtuous;-of two virtuous actions which is preferable. A division that Panatius has ovelooked. For as all virtue is the result of four qualities, prudence, justice, magnanimity

*There is, perhaps, no passage in this work more short-sighted and ridiculous than the above, and none which more clearly indicates the practical fallaciousness of all systems of morals framed in ignorance of those views of human nature which are derived from Christianity alone. To stigmatize as morally base those occupations which are necessary to the comfort of society, is to maintain the very opposite of his own fundamental principle, by affirming that immorality and not morality is necessary to the happiness of mankind. Indeed, the attribution of any moral character to mere industrial pursuits, is an absurdity which Cicero would probably not have incurred had he lived but a few years later, and become acquainted as he might, without leaving Rome, with those fishermen and that tent-maker "of whom the world was not worthy," and through them with that Being in whose sight, amid all the irregularities of time, "the rich and the poor meet together."

and moderation; so in the choice of a duty, those qualities must necessarily come in competition with one another.

I am therefore of opinion that the duties arising from the social relations are more agreeable to nature than those that are merely notional. This may be confirmed from the following argument. Supposing that this kind of life should befall a wise man, that in an affluence of all things he might be able with great leisure to contemplate and attend to every object that is worthy his knowledge; yet if his condition be so solitary as to have no company with mankind, he would prefer death to it. Of all virtues, the most leading is that wisdom which the Greeks call σoqia, for by that sagacity which they term oornois we understand quite another thing, as it implies the knowledge of what things are to be desired, and what to be avoided. But that wisdom which I have stated to be the chief, is the knowledge of things divine and human, which comprehends the fellowship of gods and men, and their society within themselves. If that be, as it certainly is, the highest of all objects, it follows of course that the duty resulting from this fellowship is the highest of all duties. For the knowledge and contemplation of nature is in a manner lame and unfinished, if it is followed by no activity; now activity is most perspicuous when it is exerted in protecting the rights of mankind.

It therefore has reference to the social interests of the human race, and is for that reason preferable to knowledge; and this every virtuous man maintains and exhibits in practice. For who is so eager in pursuing and examining the nature of things, that if, while he is handling and contemplating the noblest objects of knowledge, the peril and crisis of his country is made known to him, and that it is in his power to assist and relieve her, would not instantly abandon and fling from him all those studies, even though he thought he would be enabled to number the stars, or measure the dimensions of the world? And he would do the same were the safety of a friend or a parent concerned or endangered. From this consideration I infer, that the duties of justice are preferable to the studies and duties of knowledge, relating as they do to the interests of the human race, to which no anterior consideration ought to exist in the mind of man. XLIV. But some have employed their whole lives in the

pursuits of knowledge, and yet have not declined to contribute to the utility and advantage of men. For they have even instructed many how they ought to be better citizens and more useful to their country. Thus Lysis, the Pythagorean educated Epaminondas of Thebes, as did Plato Dion of Syracuse, and so of many others; and as to whatever services I have performed, if I have performed any to the state, I came to it after being furnished and adorned with knowledge by teachers and learning.

Nor do those philosophers only instruct and educate those who are desirous of learning while alive and present among us; but they continue to do the same after death, by the monuments of their learning; for they neglect no point that relates to the constitution, the manners and the morals of their country; so that it appears as if they had dedicated all their leisure to our advantage. Thus while they are themselves devoted to the studies of learning and wisdom, they make their understanding and their skill chiefly available to the service of mankind. It is therefore more serviceable to the public for a man to discourse copiously, provided it is to the purpose, than for a man to think ever so accurately without the power of expression; the reason is, because thought terminates in itself alone, but discourse affects those with whom we are connected in a community.

Now as the swarms of bees do not assemble in order to form the honey-comb, but form the honey-comb because they are by nature gregarious; so, and in a far greater degree, men being associated by nature, manifest their skill in thinking and acting. Therefore, unless knowledge is connected with that virtue which consists in doing service to mankind, that is, in improving human society, it would seem to be but solitary and barren.

In like manner greatness of soul, when utterly disunited from the company and society of men, becomes a kind of uncouth ferocity. Hence it follows that the company and the community of men are preferable to mere speculative knowledge.

Neither is that maxim true which is affirmed by some, that human communities and societies were instituted from the necessity of our condition, because we can not without the help of others supply what our nature requires; and that if we could be furnished, as by a kind of magic wand, with every thing

that relates to food and raiment, that then every man of excelling genius, laying aside all other occupations, would apply himself to knowledge and learning. The fact is not so; for he would fly from solitude and look out for a companion in his pursuits; and would desire sometimes to teach and sometimes to learn, sometimes to listen and sometimes to speak. Every duty therefore that operates for the good of human community and society, is preferable to that duty which is limited to speculation and knowledge.

XLV. Here perhaps it should be inquired, whether the duties of that society which is most suitable to nature are preferable to moderation and decency? By no means. some things are partly so disgraceful, and partly so criminal in their nature, that a wise man would not commit them, even to save his country. Posidonius has collected very many such; but they are so obscene and so shocking that it would be scandalous even to name them. A wise man would not undertake such things, even to serve his country, nor would his country undertake them to serve herself. But it fortunately happens, that there never can be a conjuncture, when the public interest shall require from a wise man the performance of such actions.

Hence it follows, that in the choice of our duties we are to prefer that kind of duty that contributes to the good of society. For well-directed action is always the result of knowledge and prudence. And therefore it is of more consequence to act properly, than to deliberate justly. Thus much then may suffice on this subject; for this topic has now been so fully laid open, that it is easy for every man in the study of his duties, to see which is preferable. Now in society there are degrees of duties by which every man may understand what belongs to himself. The first is owing to the immortal gods, the second to our country, the third to our parents, and lastly to others through different gradations.

From these arguments thus briefly stated we perceive that men are sometimes not only in doubt, whether a thing is virtuous or disgraceful; but likewise when two virtuous things are proposed, which is more so. This head, as I said before, was omitted by Panætius. Let us now proceed to what remains of our subject.