cording to Buffon, has fallen into very material error. He has affirmed that the animal has three stomachs, whereas it has in reality but one stomach, parted a little, like that of the tapir, by two strictures or contractions.

16. An observation concerning a blemish in a horse's eye, not hitherto discovered by any author. By Dr. Rich. Lower. Phil. Trans. 1668. Vol. II. p. 613. This paper gives an account of certain spongy excrescences that grow from the uvea of horses' eyes.

17. A letter of Malpighi to Jacobus Sponius, giving a minute account of the uterus of the cow. Phil. Trans. 1684. Vol. XIV. p. 630.

18. Observations on the dissection of a rat. By Mr. R. W., S.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1693. Vol. XVII. p. 594.

19. Anatomical observations on the heads of fowls. By the late Allen Moullen, M.D. S.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1693. Vol. XVII. p. 711.

20. Observations on the dissection of a paroquet. By Mr. Richard Waller. Phil. Trans. 1694. Vol. XVIII. p. 153.

21. On the structure of the internal parts of fish. By Dr. Charles Preston. Phil. Trans. 1697. Vol. XIX. p. 419.

22. The dissection of the scallop. By Dr. Martin Lister, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1697. Vol. XIX. p. 567.

23. The anatomical history of the leech. By M. Paupart. Phil. Trans. Vol. XIX. p. 722.

24. Concerning the eggs of snails. By Mr. Anth. Van Leuwenhoeck. Phil Trans. Vol. XIX. p. 790. 25. Carigueya, seu marcupiale Americanum; or, the anatomy of an opossum, (didelphis marsupialis ;) dissected at Gresham College. By Edward Tyson, M.D. F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1698. Vol. XX. p. 105.

26. Abstract of letters sent to Sir C. H. relating to some microscopical observations. Communicated by Sir C. H. to the editor. Phil. Trans. 1703. Vol. XXIII. p. 1357. The animals described in this paper are the louse, a mite, a muscle, the lepas balanus, various larvæ, ticks, and some infusoria. The observations are not of much value.

27. The anatomy of those parts of a male opossum that differ from the female. By William Cower, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1704. Vol. XXIV. p. 1576. The structure of the male organs of generation in the opossum is quite peculiar. It is very particularly described in this paper.

28. Microscopical observations on the structure of the spleen, and proboscis of fleas. By Mr. Anthony Van Leuwenhoeck. Phil. Trans. 1706. Vol. XXV. p. 2305.

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29. The anatomy and osteology of an elephant; being an exact description of all the bones of the elephant which died near Dundee, April 27, 1706, with their several dimensions. By Mr. Patrick Blair, surgeon, &c. Phil. Trans. 1710. Vol. XXVII. p. 53. This is a most surprizing paper, and contains a most minute and accurate account of the anatomy of the elephant, especially of the osteology of that animal. If we consider that Dr. Blair made all his observations on one animal, we must admit that his exertions must have been uncommon, and his address great to have made his account so minute as it is.

30. Anatomical description of the heart of the land tortoise from America. By Mr. Paul Bussiere, surgeon, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. Vol. XXVII. p. 170. The heart of this animal, as is the case with the whole tribe of amphibia, has only one ventricle.

31. A description of that curious natural machine the wood-pecker's tongue, &c. By Richard Waller, Esq. late Secretary to the Royal Society. Phil. Trans. 1716. Vol. XXIX. p. 509. This animal bores holes in sound oak and beech trees with its beak, and builds its nest in them. Its tongue i long and pointed, it suddenly darts it out three or four inches beyond the point of its bill, and draws it in again very speedily with the insect spitted upon its point.

32. An account of the coati mondi of Brazil. By Dr. George Mackenzie. Phil. Trans. 1723. Vol. XXXII. p. 317. In this paper Dr. Mackenzie compares his dissection with that of the same animal by the French Academicians, and points out many differences, which he supposes owing to the

difference in the sex of the animals examined, his being a female, while that of the French was a male.

33. Some observations on an ostrich dissected by order of Sir Hans Sloane, Bart. By Mr. John Ranby, surgeon. Phil. Trans. Vol. XXXIII. p. 223. Some additions are made to this paper in Vol. XXXVI. p. 275. There is besides another dissection of an ostrich, by Mr. George Warren, surgeon, in Cambridge, in Vol. XXXIV. p. 113.

34. Anatomy of the mus Alpinus, or marmot. By J. Jas. Scheuczer, of Zurich, M.D. F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1727. Vol. XXIV. p. 237.

35. The dissection of the poisonous apparatus of a rattle-snake, made by the direction of Sir Hans Sloane, Bart. With an account of the quick effects of its poison. By John Ranby, surgeon, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. Vol. XXXV. p. 377. In this paper the structure of the fangs, and the way that the poison is conveyed to the wound inflicted, are sufficiently explained.

36. An anatomical description of worms found in the kidneys of wolves. By Mr. James Theodorus Klein, Secretary of the City of Dantzic, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1730. Vol. XXXVI. p. 269.

37. An account of the hermaphrodite lobster presented to the Royal Society, May 7, by Mr. Fisher of Newgate Market, examined and dissected, pursuant to an order of the Society. By F. Nicholls, M.D. F.R.S. Phil. Trans. Vol. XXXVI. p. 290.

38. The dissection of a female beaver, and an account of castor found in her. By C. Mortimer, M.D. R.S.S. Phil. Trans. 1733. Vol. XXXVIII. p. 172. In this paper Dr. Mortimer gives an excellent historical account of every thing that had been previously observed respecting the anatomy of the beaver. His own dissection is defective, because the animal was previously so much torn by a dog that several of the parts were destroyed.

39. An account of some peculiar advantages in the structure of the aspera arteriæ, or wind-pipes of several birds, and in the land tortoise. By Dr. Parsons, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1766. Vol. LVI. p. 204. This is a curious paper, giving an account of the tortuosities of the wind-pipe (with figures) in several birds, particularly water fowl.

40. An account of the lymphatic system in birds. By Mr. Wm. Hewson, Reader in Anatomy. Phil. Trans. 1768. Vol. LVIII. p. 217. This is one of the papers which conferred celebrity upon Mr. Hewson. It contains the first account of the lymphatics of birds ever published.

41. An account of the gymnotus electricus. By John Hunter, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1775. Vol. LXV. p. 395. This is a minute account of the electrical organs of the torpedo. Mr. Walsh having made experiments on the electric power of this surprizing fish was anxious to get an exact account of the organs which possessed the electric property, he accordingly procured a torpedo, and it was at his request that Mr. Hunter dissected it. Mr. Hunter never having enjoyed the benefit of a liberal education, his papers generally required to be corrected, or even new modelled, before they were committed to the press. The present paper was drawn up by Dr. Bancroft from J. Hunter's dissection, at the request of Mr. Walsh.

42. On the organs of speech of the orang outang. By Peter Camper, M.D. late Professor of Anatomy, &c. in the University of Groningen and F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1779. Vol. LXIX. p. 139. This is a curious paper. Camper shows, contrary to Dr. Tyson's assertion in a former paper in the Transactions, that these organs in the orang outang are very different from the human, and thence deduces that the animal is not capable of articulate speech like man.

43. A microscopic description of the eyes of the monoculus polyphemus Linnæi. By Mr. William André, surgeon. Phil. Trans. 1782. Vol. LXXII. P. 440.

44. A description of the teeth of the anarrhichas lupus Linnæi, and of those of the chaetodon nigricans of the same author; to which is added, an attempt to prove that the teeth of cartilaginous fishes are perpetually renewed. By Mr. William André, surgeon. Phil. Trans. 1784. Vol. LXXIV. p. 274. 45. Observations on the structure and economy of whales. By John Hunter, Esq. F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1787. Vol. LXXVII. p. 371. This is a very long and elaborate paper, and contains the fullest. information respecting the anatomy of the whale tribe yet offered to the public.

46. Some particulars in the anatomy of a whale. By Mr. John Abernethy. Phil. Trans. 1796. Vol. LXXXVI. p. 27. This paper contains several curious particulars, from which the author deduces some important physiological conclusions.

47. A description of the anatomy of the sea otter from a dissection made Nov. 15, 1795. By E. Home, Esq. F.R.S. and Mr. Arch. Menzies.

48. The dissection of an hermaphrodite dog. With observations on hermaphrodites in general. By Everard Home, Esq. F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1799. Vol. LXXXIX. p. 157. This is a very curious paper, containing a great collection of very important facts, and some general deductions from

them.

49. On the structure of the teeth of graminivorous quadrupeds; particularly those of the elephant. and sus Ethiopicus. By E. Home, Esq. F.R.S. This paper contains much valuable information respecting the structure and growth of teeth; but not very susceptible of abridgement; as is indeed the case with most papers on comparative anatomy.

50. Account of a peculiarity in the distribution of the arteries sent to the limbs of slow moving animals; with some other similar facts. By Mr. Anthony Carlisle, surgeon. Phil. Trans. 1800. Vol. XC. p. 98. Mr. Carlisle's papers are all uncommonly ingenious and valuable. It is much to be regretted that he has favoured the world with so few.

51. Some observations on the head of the ornithorhynchus paradoxus. By E. Home, Esq. F.R.S. Phil. Trans. Vol. XC. p. 432. The ornithorhynchus is a singular animal from New Holland, having attached to its mouth a beak very similar in appearance to the bill of a duck. In this paper we have a curious account of the structure of the mouth.

From the preceding catalogue, we see that the Philosophical Transactions contain an anatomical account of the following animals :

This is a pretty extensive list; though small when compared to the vast number of inferior animals which constitute the object of comparative anatomy. To complete the list of the labours on comparative anatomy, performed by British anatomists, it is proper to mention Dr. Monro's work on fishes, which has added considerably to our knowledge of these animals. Mr. Carlisle, in a paper lately published in the Transactions, and which unfortunately does not

come under our review, has communicated some very valuable information respecting the muscular system of these animals.

SECTION IV.-Of Physiology.

The term Physiology, originally synonimous with Natural Philosophy, has, like many other Greek words, been very much restricted in its signification by modern philosophers. It is now applied exclusively to that science which treats of the properties and functions of living bodies. The first treatise on physiology, at least which has come down to us, is Galen's book De Usu Partium. Galen. Though possessed of considerable merit, considering the period in which it was produced, it was necessarily very imperfect, in consequence of the small progress which had been made in anatomy. The anatomists were in fact the great Improvers of improvers of physiology, and it is to their discoveries that we are indebted for physiology. the greater part of the knowledge which we possess of the functions of living bodies. The discovery of the circulation of the blood, and of the absorbent system, contributed in no small degree to account for various phenomena and diseases formerly inexplicable. For our part, however, we must acknowledge that the science of physiology, notwithstanding the vast multitude of writers who have attempted to elucidate it, and notwithstanding the numerous theories which have been advanced, and the supercilious confidence with which they have been maintained, appears to us to have hardly made any real advances even in the most modern times. We allow, indeed, that a great deal Present state of knowledge has been gained of the mechanical structure of living bodies, and of the science, that various plausible chemical explanations have been offered of some of the functions; respiration, for example, and nutrition. But the action of the nervous system; the manner in which it occasions motion, sensation, and perception; the connexion between organization and, thinking; animal heat; the nature of generation; and, in short, upon what the phenomena of life depend; are problems, just as far from solution at present, as they were in the days of Hippocrates and Galen. The opinions, even of the most recent writers on the subject, are too absurd to merit the smallest attention. Indeed we are apprehensive that the subject itself is beyond the reach of the human faculties, and that nothing better than chimæras and vain imaginations can ever be produced on it.

The science of physiology has been chiefly cultivated by medical men, and the practice of medicine, or the method employed by physicians in attempting to cure diseases, has been almost entirely regulated by the physiological system which happened to be in vogue. Now it is curious to remark, that the principles of physiology have uniformly depended upon the particular science that happened to be in fashion. When the opinions of Aristotle and Galen reigned paramount in the schools, all the functions of the living body were explained

by having recourse to occult qualities and occult faculties. When Paracelsus drew the attention of Europe to chemistry, that science was considered as paramount to account for all the animal functions; and the physiologists of the time explained every thing by means of fermentation, sublimation, distillation, filtration, concoction, and other similar processes, familiar to the chemists of the age. When Newton and his contemporaries laid the foundation of mechanics, upon the rigid principles of mathematical demonstration, physiologists embraced with eagerness the fashionable doctrines; the human body was converted into a hydraulical machine; the force of the heart and the velocity of the blood were rigidly ascertained; and every thing was accounted for by the size, and shape, and motion, of the different particles of matter of which the body was composed. When mechanical philosophy began to lose its novelty, it was in some measure supplanted as a fashionable study by a peculiar species of metaphysics, which was prosecuted with much ardour for a time, till it at length terminated in universal scepticism. During the progress of this enticing science, physiologists laid hold of its notions and doctrines, and two opposite systems were produced, the more ancient explaining every thing by the action of a living principle, and the more modern by a principle somewhat indefinite, to which they gave the name of irritability. The recent discoveries in pneumatic chemistry having again brought that bewitching science into fashion, a new race of physiologists has arisen, who ascribe every thing to chemical principles; and ring changes upon the words oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and azote, by means of which, in their opinion, every function in the living body may be sufficiently and satisfactorily explained.

It would carry us too far, and would be spending time to very little purpose, to take a particular view of the physiological systems which distinguished the last century, and each of which for a time possessed its admirers, and gave celebrity and success to the physician who first broached it. Boerhaave, Hoffman, Stahl, Cullen, Brown, Darwin, are the most distinguished names. The system of Boerhaave has lost all its defenders; but the opinions of Stahl, of Hoffman, as modified and altered by Cullen, and of Brown, are still adhered to by numerous sects. Darwin's system has not been so fortunate. His Zoonomia was published at an unlucky period; his opinions deviated too far from those of his contemporaries; and his knowledge of chemistry, upon which his theories chiefly depended, was too confined and inaccurate to attract much respect or confidence. The short-lived celebrity of his botanic garden, and the extravagant hypotheses which he advanced in various departments of the science, contributed likewise to injure the success of his system. The physiology of Haller is by far the most important work on the subject which has hitherto appeared, and indeed will not be easily surpassed by succeeding physiologists. I consider it as the most stupendous monument of industry which the eighteenth century