which two together are sounded as one, (ä, ö, ü); and he shows accurately how each of these, and each in its several modifications, is sounded. Of diphthongs he says little, because his purpose was to speak of letters not grammatically, but according to the sounds they imply; but he regarded those only as genuine diphthongs which are formed by "the pronunciation of two, or rarely three, vowels, successively and more quickly than usual," yet distinctly; and he calls it ill spelling when in some languages diphthongs are written for sounds, in which one or both of the vowels composing them are unheard. Amman calls those letters semi-vowels which resemble the vowels in that their sound can be prolonged at pleasure, but differ from them in the greater modification which the voice is made to undergo in its passage. His first division of them is the nasal, in which the voice is forced to pass through the nose, either by the closure of the lips, as in m, or by the tip of the tongue being placed near the teeth, as in n, or by the back of the tongue being raised to the palate, as in n before g, k, and q. The second division of the semi-vowels is the oral, in which the voice passes through the mouth constrainedly by the sides of the tongue, as in l, or with oscillations or intermissions, as in r. The consonants are "formed by the air or non-sonorous breath, in the various modifications of which all their force and difference consist;" but to avoid a seemingly unnecessary innovation, Amman included in this class several letters which he thought ought rather to be called semi-vowels, as the French z, v, and j, the English th, &c. Including these, he divides consonants into single and double; the former being either sibilant or explosive. The sibilant are such as, like the vowels and semi-vowels, can be prolonged at will; h (the simplest of all consonants), ch, s, sch, for ph, the Dutch g, the Dutch and French z, the Frenchj, and the v of nearly all tongues. The explosive consonants are such as are formed by the non-sonorous air, prevented from passing through the nose, accumulated in some part of the oral passage, and suddenly discharged, as k, t, p, the French g after a, o, or u, d, the English th, and b. The distinction of double consonants, such as x, the German z before e and i, the Italian c before e and i, &c., he says, is altogether unnatural; they are each two letters, into which it was always necessary in his teaching to resolve them. In the third chapter of his work Amman shows how this knowledge of letters was applied in his practice. In all his deaf and dumb patients he required a somewhat quick and docile mind and well-formed organs of speech. The best age was between eight and fifteen years. He first taught his patients to vocalise, and to distinguish between voice and a mere whisper or gesture of the mouth, by putting their hands on his throat when he spoke, and then making them imitate him. He continued this till they could manage their own voices, and could perceive when he uttered the lowest sounds. He next taught them to pronounce a vowel, by putting his mouth in the necessary position, with some exaggeration, and making them imitate it and vocalise; and after this, making them practise before a glass, that they might exercise their unused muscles to the due action; for, he says, speech is not acquired as a necessary consequence of hearing or seeing letters sounded, but by a constant practice of the art of using certain muscles as others use them. At the same time also that he taught his patients to pronounce letters, he used to write them down, that they might gain a knowledge of the import of each, and might repeat them and learn the differences between them in his absence. Thus continuing patiently, rarely setting more than two or three letters to be learned in a day, and still frequently making his pupils feel his larynx and close their nostrils, that each vowel might be sounded with a full tone, he used to pass on to the semi-vowels, and from these to the consonants, teaching each in the same manner, both as to the mode of pronouncing it, its form in writing, its general import, &c. When all the letters were learned singly, they were next combined in words written on paper, which the pupils learned to pronounce by first pronouncing each letter separately in its simple proper form, and then making the sound of each follow rapidly on that of the preceding. He next gradually taught his patients to read; and lastly, he instructed them in the meaning and uses of the words they read and spoke. The patience necessary for the successful practice of his art was more, Amman says, than would be believed; and the hindrances to learning were in different patients very various yet his success, for which there is the evidence of others as well as himself, was so great, that in the first ten years of his practice he dismissed only two patients uncured, and many learned within two months both to read and to pronounce several words, as well as to understand clearly what was said to them. He did not limit his practice to the dumb, but treated all kinds of impediments of the speech, applying to them generally the same system of teaching the exact method of pronouncing simple sounds. some cases where the uvula was too long, he used to cut off a portion of it; an operation which has of late been introduced as a novelty for the cure of stammering, but which is probably useless, except in such cases as those in which Amman employed it. In In estimating the merits of Amman's work, it must be borne in mind that it was written, not as a philological essay, but to communicate the practical art of teaching the dumb to speak. For this purpose it was very suc demic in 1629, and of which Haller gives cessful many learned the art, and practised | 1677, 8vo., which relates chiefly to an epiit with the same advantage, while the systems of Wallis and the other predecessors of Amman found few imitators, in consequence of their comparative difficulty and obscurity. But as a work on philology its merits are also very great. The whole subject is treated, though not extensively, yet with a remarkable clearness and simplicity; many relations of different letters are pointed out, which were before unobserved; and the mode in which letters are severally pronounced is in many instances more correctly shown. But besides this, Amman first pointed out that main distinction of consonants into the continuous and the explosive, which is still regarded as the foundation of one of the few natural divisions of letters. He first pointed out the distinction, still retained, of the nasal and oral consonants and semi-vowels; and he discerned the imperfection of the common division of vowels and consonants which rested on the former being supposed to be alone sounded in the larynx. For all this it is clear that he deserves a better fate than to be passed over in a few lines, as he is in all the medical biographical works. 66 A'MMAN or AMMON, JOST, a celebrated designer and engraver, and a painter, of the sixteenth century, was born at Zürich in 1539. Of his youth nothing is known. In 1560 he established himself at Nürnberg, where he acquired a great reputation as an engraver on copper and on wood, and as a painter on glass; and in 1577 he gave up his right of burghership in the city of Zürich. Amman's being born at Zürich and domiciliated at Nürnberg, and his putting Zürich after his name to some of his prints, and Nürnberg to others, led Papillon to speak of two artists of this name. Nearly all the writers who notice Amman speak of him as a painter, yet they mention Besides the "Surdus Loquens," J. C. Am- none of his works. Sandrart and Doppelman wrote the following works: 1. "Dis- mayr speak only of his painting on glass; putatio inauguralis sistens ægrum Peripneu- and his name is not in the catalogues of any monia laborantem." Basle, 1687, 4to. 2. A of the principal collections of Germany, nor translation of Mercurius van Helmont's is he mentioned in Ebel's description of Spirit of Diseases," with the title "Ob- Switzerland (Anleitung, &c.). Dr. Nagler, servationes circa Hominem et ejus Morbos." however, states that Amman's oil paintings Amsterdam, 1692, 8vo. 3. A translation are highly valued, but that they are scarce. into Dutch of the same author's "Alphabeti He is chiefly known as a designer, and his vere naturalis Hebraici Delineatio." Amster- drawings with the pen upon wood and upon dam, 1697, 12mo. 4. An edition of "Cælius paper are very numerous. He was remarkAurelianus, de Morbis acutis Libri III.," with ably industrious. George Keller, a painter notes by himself, and additional notes and of Frankfort, who studied with Amman four Lexicon Cælianum by Almeloveen. Amster- years, told Sandrart that during the period dam, 4to. 1704, 1722, &c. (Haller, Biblio- that he was with him, Amman made drawtheca Anatomica et Medicine Practice; J. ings enough to have filled a great waggon. C. Amman, Dissertatio de Loquela.) J. P. In Amman's time few books were published AMMAN, JOHANN JACOB, was born without illustrations, and he was very much near the lake of Zürich in 1586, and is said employed by booksellers, especially by Siegto have been a distinguished surgeon. He mund Feyerabend at Frankfort, who pubtravelled for a long time in Turkey, Syria, lished the majority of Amman's works. Aland Egypt, and died in 1658 in Switzerland. though there are about a thousand woodcuts An account of part of his travels was pub- attributed to this artist, Bartsch and Zani lished at Zürich in 1678, with the title have doubted whether he ever cut any of "Reise ins gelobte Land." Haller mentions, them himself in the wood. Bartsch supposes as the most interesting medical or botanical also that many of the etchings attributed to fact in the book, that he speaks of drinking Amman are the work of Stephen Hermann. coffee in all the taverns as early as the year Amman surpassed every artist who preceded 1612. (Biographie Médicale; Haller, Bib-him in the number of his designs, but many liotheca Britannica, i. 600.) of his works were published after his death. He died at Nürnberg in 1591, in the fiftythird year of his age. Another person of the same name is the author of a 66 Disputatio medica de Decubitu." Tübingen, 1700 and 1701, 4to. And Haller (Bibliotheca Med. Prac. iii. 182.) mentions a J. AMMAN, who must be different from all the preceding, the author of two essays: 1. "De Inflammatione Lateris, seu Pleuritide." Basle, 1665, 4to. 2. "Gründlicher Bericht von der Pest," Schaffhausen, Amman's works consist chiefly of woodcuts, but there are many also in copper; they are, however, inferior to the woodcuts. His figures are well proportioned, and generally well drawn; his animals also, of which he has designed many, are drawn with spirit: in all his designs, he paid a greater attention to nature than the generality of the artists of his time; his works on costume are for this reason valuable to the artist. Strutt remarks of Amman," If patience and assiduity of themselves could complete an artist, I know of no one more likely to have attained to a superior degree of excellence than Jost Amman. The multitude of designs which he made, and the number of plates which he engraved, are almost incredible.... Much merit he certainly possessed as an engraver; but not equal to what one might have expected from the labour he evidently must have bestowed upon his profession. . . . His manner of engraving is neat and decided; but if his strokes are more regular than was usual with the engravers on wood of his time, it is to be feared that as much as he gained by the pains he took with this part of his execution, he lost in freedom and spirit." Amman tried his hand also at writing; he wrote a book on poetry, painting, and sculpture, (DichtMahler- und Bildhauer-Kunst), published at Frankfort in 1578; and later, under the title "Artis Pingendi Enchiridion," (" The Manual of Painting"). The following are some of Amman's principal works :- 1. “Пaνoжλiα, omnium liberalium mechanicarum et sedentariarum Artium Genera continens. Accesserunt Imagines. Edit. per Hartman Schoperum. Francof. 1564 :" a very rare book. It was published in the same place again in 1574, under the following title: 2. "De omnibus illiberalibus sive mechanicis Artibus, Autore Hartmanno Schoppero, Verso elegiaco conscriptus ;' it was published again in 1588. It contains 115 figures cut in wood, representing the principal arts and trades of the time; Amman is said to have drawn himself as the engraver. The same plates were used for the book of Hans Sachs, "Eigentliche Beschreibung aller Stände auf Erden," printed at Frankfort in 1568 and 1574. The greater portion of the portraits of the kings of France, from Pharamond to Henri III.," Effigies Regum Francorum omnium, &c.," published by Virgilius Solis in 1576, at Nürnberg; on copper, those by Amman are etched, those by Solis engraved. 3." Icones Livianæ, &c.," published at Frankfort in 1572, 1573; it contains 103 illustrations of Livy's Roman History; other plates were added to the number, and they were published in the same place in 1573, with a German translation of Livy, and also at Strassburg in 1631 the first print is a portrait of Siegmund Feyerabend on wood. The books of Pliny the elder, under the title 4. "Caji Plinii Secundi des Weltberühmten alten Philosophen Naturkündigers Bücher und Schriften ; mit schönen neuen Figuren geziert." Frankfort, 1584, in fol., on wood. 5. The clerical and monastic costumes of the Roman church, "Cleri totius Romanæ Ecclesiæ subjecti, seu Pontificiorum Ordinum omnium omnino utriusque Sexus habitus, &c.," published by 66 Feyerabend at Frankfort in 1564; and in German in 1585, 1599, and in 1661: it contains 103 figures on wood. 6. 120 plates, illustrating female costume, under the title Gynæceum, sive Theatrum Mulierum, &c.," Frankfort, 1586, on wood. 7. A set of twelve illustrious women, beginning with Eve, “Eva die Gebererin," on copper. 8. "The Dance of Death" ("Der Todten Tantz"), 1587, 49 plates, on wood. Amman designed and engraved many other works, of all subjects; Scripture history, allegory, natural history, hunting, sporting, military costume, heraldry, perspective, &c. He engraved also many portraits, among them one of Hans Sachs. (Doppelmayr, Historische Nachricht, &c.; Heineken, Dictionnaire des Artistes, &c.; Bartsch, Le Peintre Graveur; Füssli, Allgemeines Künstler Lexicon, Nachtrag, 1824; Strutt, Dictionary of Engravers; Nagler, Neues Allgemeines Künstler Lexicon.) R. N. W. AMMANA'TI, GIOVANNI DI, a clever Italian artist of Siena of the fourteenth century. He was Capomaestro of the artists who were employed in 1331 and the following years in the construction and embellishment of the stalls of the choir in the cathedral of Orvieto, and was distinguished for his taste and skill in inlaying. (Della Valle, Istoria del Duomo d'Orvieto.) R. N. W. AMMANA'TI. [PICCOLOMINI.] AMMANN, PAUL, was born at Breslau in 1634. He studied medicine at Leipzig, and there, after travelling through Holland and England, received his doctor's diploma in 1662. In 1674 he was appointed professor of botany, and in 1682 professor of physiology, at Leipzig, where he died in 1691. His writings are very numerous on both medicine and botany, but he did not contribute much to the progress of science; for, though he wrote with energy against the common fault of his contemporaries of neglecting experience and deciding difficulties in medicine by the authority of the ancients, yet he gives few signs of having himself laboured in the field of observation. The following are Paul Ammann's chief works a list of the rest is given in Haller's Bibliothecæ and the Biographie Médicale :1. "Medicina critica, seu decisoria, centuria Casuum.... comprehensa." Erfurt, 1670, 4to. It is a collection of a hundred cases sent to the faculty of medicine of Leipzig for their judgment, with their answers, and in some cases the arguments employed on both sides. It involved him in a dispute with the faculty, who were offended at his publishing facts, some of which could be turned to their discredit. In the first edition the letters to the faculty and their answers were in German ; these were translated into Latin by C. F. Paulinus in an edition which was published at Stade, in 1677, with a long preface, "De Syncretismo medico." 2. "Parænesis ad 66 discentes occupata circa Institutionum medicarum Emendationem." Rudolstadt, 1673, 12mo. This is a criticism of the generally received institutes of medicine, the greater part of which he easily shows to be based on uncertain hypotheses. But, in their stead, he puts only confessions of ignorance, or other not more certain institutes deduced from the works of the modern writers, especially the anatomists. To a second edition, published at Leipzig in 1677, were added three small essays, entitled " Archæus syncopticus contra Leichnerum;" Disputatio de Resonitu;" and "Resolutio Problematis Monspeliensis; vade, occide Cain ;" and these were again published with an enlarged edition of the Parænesis, after Ammann's death, under the title "Consilium de Institutionum medicarum Emendatione necessario suscipienda." Leipzig, 1693, 12mo. The first of these essays is a defence of the Parænesis against Eccard Leichner; the second, a dissertation on fracture by contrecoup; the third, an attempt to explain a sentence said to be pronounced to all who become doctors at Montpellier. It supposes that in Cain, or Caim, whom the doctors were told to go and kill, were the initials of four things chiefly to be avoided or cured, namely, Crapula, Avaritia, Invidia, Mendacium; or Colica, Apoplexia, Ileus, Morphæa.* 3. "Supellex Botanica." Leipzig, 1675, 8vo.; an enumeration of the plants growing in the neighbourhood of Leipzig and in its botanic garden, which, under the care of Ammann, was in a very flourishing condition. There is added to it "Brevis ad Materiam Medicam Manuductio." 4." Character plantarum naturalis a fine ultimo, videlicet fructificatione, desumtus." Leipzig, 1676, 12mo. In this, his chief botanical work, Ammann defends the system, then lately proposed by Robert Morrison, of naming and classifying plants according to the characters of their fruits, or rather of the whole flower, which he held to be more constant and essential than the characters of any other parts. He shows the faults of previous systems, but nearly all his descriptions are taken from Morrison; so that, if he aided the progress to the natural system of botany at all, it was more by his usual method of decrying error than by furnishing facts. An enlarged edition of this work, with the title "Cura secundæ," &c., was published at Leipzig in 1686; and a still larger by Daniel Nebel in 1700. 5. "Hortus Bosianus, quoad Exotica solum descriptus," * Several writers besides Ammann had endeavoured to explain this sentence, "Vade occide Cain," in a similar manner, by other words of which Cain contains the initials; but the truth is, neither this nor any sentence of the kind was ever introduced into the ceremony of conferring doctor's degrees at Montpellier. Its supposed introduction was ascribed to Rabelais, who was a doctor of medicine of Montpellier, and to whom are also ascribed, but with little foundation, several parts of the ceremonies really performed. (Astruc, Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire de la Faculté de Montpellier, p. 88. and 329.) Leipzig, 1686, 4to.; a description of the garden of Gaspar Bose, a magistrate of Leipzig, who had imported many rare plants from England and France. 6. "Praxis Vulnerum lethalium." Frankfort, 1690, 8vo. It contains the medical jurisprudence of wounds, illustrated by sixty cases; with long discussions on the question by whom examinations of bodies should be made, and frequent invectives against the system by which, on some equivocation, criminals were often allowed to escape. The preface also contains a violent satire upon physicians for their general ignorance of anatomy, and their notion that they could learn anything about wounds by reading books. 7. "Irenicum Numa Pompilii cum Hippocrate," Frankfort and Leipzig, 1689, 8vo.; a work devoted chiefly to the ridicule of his contemporaries and to the illustration of the errors of the ancient physicians which had been followed and acted on by jurists. (Jöcher, Allgemeine-GelehrtenLexicon; Haller, Bibliothecæ; Ammann's Works.) J. P AMMANNA'TI or AMMANNA'TO, BARTOLOMME'O, a celebrated sculptor and architect, was the son of Antonio da Settignano, and was born at Florence in the year 1511. He lost his father when he was twelve years of age, and, being left a very small patrimony, it was necessary that he should follow some profession as a means of living. He chose that of a sculptor; and he had the good fortune to be placed under two of the ablest masters that Italy at that time afforded. His first instructor was the celebrated Baccio Bandinelli. He afterwards studied at Venice under the no less distinguished Jacopo Tatti, better known as Sansovino. That he derived the greatest advantage from their instruction is proved by the extensive employment he had as soon as he entered upon the public practice of his art, as well as by the honourable position he was able immediately to take among the sculptors of the day. Many of his works exist, by which his merits may be judged; for there scarcely was a city of any importance in Italy in which he was not called upon to exercise his talents. Among these performances, still to be seen at Florence, Rome, Naples, Venice, Padua, and other places, are some which, if they must be admitted to be inferior to those of the first masters of that extraordinary age,— Michael Angelo, Sansovino, and a few others, exhibit, notwithstanding, very high qualities of art, and at least show that Ammannati has a right to the distinguished place he holds among the most eminent of the artists, whether sculptors or architects, who were produced out of their schools. It is said that when Ammannati first returned to Florence from Venice he was so much struck with the sculpture of Michael Angelo in the chapel of the Medici at S. Lorenzo, that he determined to adopt the AMMANNATI. style of that master. Many of his works show that such was his aim; but, like most imitators of inferior capacity, he fell far short of his object, and, in this respect, may be said only to have caught some of the more striking defects of manner, as it is technically called, of the great Florentine. The most usually quoted work in sculpture by Ammannati, and by which he probably is most known, is by no means his best. It is a colossal statue of Hercules, at Padua, and was executed by order of Marco di Mantova Benavides, a rich physician and great patron of the arts, who was residing in that city. Ammannati was also employed by the same person to prepare during his lifetime his monument, which was placed in the church of the Eremitani at Padua. While referring to the colossal Hercules, it may be as well also to notice two other works of this character produced by Ammannati; namely, the statue of Neptune which, with other statues, decorates the fountain in the Piazza del Gran Duca at Florence; and the still more gigantic specimen of his art at Pratolino, near Florence, of Mount Apennine, "Il Monte Apennino." The following anecdote is told in connection with the former of these two works. Baccio Bandinelli, in the hope that he should be employed to make out of it a colossal statue, had persuaded the Grand Duke Cosimo I. to purchase a large block of marble that had been quarried at Carrara. Bandinelli had had the block in some measure prepared to suit his contemplated work, and, as he had had it conveyed to Florence, he trusted to his interest with the grand duchess not to be disturbed nor interfered with in his design. This plan, however, was not destined to be accomplished. Death put an end to the hopes of Bandinelli, and the grand duke then consented that there should be a competition among Ammannati, Benvenuto Cellini, and Giovanni di Bologna (to whom Cicognara adds Vincenzo Danti) for the execution of the proposed statue. Like the majority of similar projects, which promise fairly at first but too often end with injustice, the decision of the prince was determined on without reference to the merits of the competitors. Ammannati, whether more deserving or not than his compeers, received the commission, it is said, through the interest of Michael Angelo; while Cicognara declares that Cosimo did not condescend even to look at the designs of two out of the four competitors. The result was the well-known statue above alluded to. The other statue represents Apennine as a sitting figure, with icicles hanging from him, and a fountain issuing from the ground at his feet. It is placed at the edge of a lake or small piece of water. This performance is more remarkable for its huge dimensions than for any peculiar excellence as a work of art; still it is simply ΑΜΜΑΝΝΑΤΙ. composed, and, as a whole, is a striking and effective work. At Urbino Ammannati was employed to make the tomb or monument of Duke Francesco Maria in the church of Santa Chiara. He also began some works for the monument of Maria Ñari Romano for the church of the SS. Annunziata at Florence; but it appears that, owing to jealousy or annoyance of some kind on the part of Baccio Bandinelli, he was prevented from carrying his design fully into execution, and mention is made only of a statue of Faith, which was but a part of the work, and which was placed in the cloister of the convent. At Naples he executed three statues for the monument of the poet Sannazaro. Owing to some disappointment, he quitted Naples and returned to Venice, where he again occupied himself upon a colossal statue of Neptune for the Piazza di S. Marco. It is not necessary to notice in detail the works executed by Ammannati, nor to particularise all those produced by him, either in marble or bronze, for different popes, and other distinguished patrons who employed him when he went to Rome. It is curious that one of his first occupations in that city, in the reign of Paul III., was the arrangement of some scenery for a comedy written by Giovanni Andrea dell' Anguillara, which was to be represented in the great hall of the Colonna palace. For Cardinal di Monte, afterwards Julius III., he made a handsome monument, intended for the cardinal himself and for his grandfather, which still exists in the church of S. Pietro in Montorio. In these works are two recumbent portrait statues, and allegorical figures of Justice and Religion. This pontiff also employed Ammannati to decorate his villa near the Porta del Popolo. It appears that he was not satisfied with the remuneration he received for these works, and that he left Rome and revisited his native city. It is evident, however, that he was induced to return, from the circumstance of his being extensively employed in Rome by succeeding popes, namely, Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V. The former engaged him to execute a large monument in memory of an eminent jurisconsult, a relative of the pope, in which were introduced statues of Justice and Peace with our Saviour between them. Sixtus V. consulted Ammannati upon erecting the Egyptian obelisk in the piazza or great place of St. Peter's; but on Ammannati requiring more time to make his arrangements for this undertaking than suited the impatience of the pontiff, the superintendence of this work was given to another artist. Among the classical (if they may be so called) works of Ammanati may be mentioned a statue of Leda, one of his first productions, at Pisa; and a group of Hercules wrestling with Antæus. The latter was represented in the agonies of strangulation, with a stream of water instead of blood |