in all animals. Thus he conceives one Nous the universal cause of motion, and he conceives Nous also to be the special cause of motion in all systems of organised beings which have Psyche; and among such organised beings he includes plants. The life of organised beings is a particle of Nous, and all Nous is like itself. Nous, though united with living beings, is not mixed with them. Living beings are merely a union of particles, and as the existence of Nous, though in them, is independent of them, the separation of the particles of any body cannot affect the existence of the Nous. Destruction then, as it is improperly called, or the death of organised beings, is a matter that in no wise concerns the living power.

It has been objected to Anaxagoras that his system leads to contradiction when he comes to the examination of the relation between the elemental particles and the Psyche in organised bodies; for the Psyche was intimately united, though not mixed with living things, and was affected by the operation of things on these living bodies, and accordingly Psyche or Nous was not free from the influence of matter. But as all states and conditions of matter were reducible to motion of the primal particles, and as Nous was the cause of motion, and all Nous, great and small, was of one kind, all socalled affections of Nous, as operated on by matter, were only motion, and therefore were ultimately the operation of Nous itself and not of matter.

It was consistent with the exposition of Anaxagoras of the original smaller activity of Nous, to view the formation of all the conditions necessary to the existence of organised beings as prior to their formation. Accordingly unorganised bodies were conceived to have preceded organised bodies, whose conditions of existence depend on prior conditions. Thus the formation of the sun and earth preceded that of organised bodies, which were produced from moisture, heat, and earth, and then propagated their kind.

All things were in all, except Nous; but Nous was in some. Anaxagoras, as already observed, extended the notion of life to plants; and he conceived the existence of organised beings in other places besides the earth the moon, for instance, had its houses and hills and valleys, and, we must conclude, its inhabitants. As he viewed a progress in the formation of the universe, so he did not consider it as constant in any given form. This was consistent with his principles; for the motion which Nous had impressed and was constantly impressing on matter rendered the notion of fixedness inconceivable. Observation also confirmed his general principles; and accordingly, in answer to the question, whether the mountains of Lampsacus would ever become sea, he answered that they would if time should not fail.

The doctrine of Anaxagoras of the eternal existence of the elements of matter and of their not being objects of sense, was a result of the exercise of the pure intellect, to which, in fact, Anaxagoras ascribed all our real knowledge. Sensuous objects therefore could not be conceived in their elemental parts, but only according to the impression made on us by the preponderating elements of which they were composed; for each was to be determined to be what it is by a preponderance of like elements over the other like elements which it contained. The objection of Aristotle, that, according to this system, nothing true could be predicated of any thing, does not touch the doctrine of Anaxagoras. Nothing true could be predicated of any thing, but truth could be predicated of its phænomena, for Anaxagoras said (Aristot. Metaphys. iv. 5.) that things are to us such as we suppose them to be. Thus sensuous appearances were not false, and they were not without their value; for phænomena, as he expressed it, were to us the measure of things beyond the limits of sense. He saw clearly that the sensuous impressions were not to be confounded with the essential nature of things. It was a consequence of the doctrines of Anaxagoras that man could know very little his knowledge indeed might be called nothing when compared with the infinite that he could not know.

The particular doctrines of Anaxagoras are of little importance, except so far as they may be consequences of his general system ; for the merits of his system, like that of all systems, must be tried by its consistency with itself its absence of contradictions. Some of his particular opinions may be referred to his general principles; others, such as they are reported, stand like isolated guesses; such, for instance, that the sun is a mass of red hot iron, and larger than the Peloponnesus, which is said to have been one of the grounds of his prosecution for impiety; the galaxy was the reflection of the sun's light; thunder was caused by the collision of clouds, and lightning by their rubbing together. He is also said to have predicted the fall of the great stone at Ægospotami, which happened about the time when Lysander defeated the Athenians there, B. c. 405; an absurd story, by which we may measure the probability of many other of the opinions attributed to him. His opinion that the moon shone by the sun's light may not be original. The attempt at the quadrature of the circle, to which Plutarch alludes, may not have been a treatise, as it is sometimes supposed. A work on perspective (ἀκτινογραφίη) is attributed to him by Vitruvius.

As we know Anaxagoras only in fragments, and chiefly through his expositors, who may have frequently misunderstood him, it is impossible to reconstruct his system with certainty. That he was a man of clear and powerful understanding, and a bold original thinker, is undeniable. It seems probable, too, that his system, if it is here rightly explained, was tolerably free from contradictions; a merit not a small one at a time when the language of philosophy was unformed, and the dialectic subtlety of the Greeks was still undeveloped. The form in which his general doctrines are clothed must not be too studiously regarded in estimating their merits. Anaxagoras was an extraordinary man, and Aristotle thought him so. Bayle has a long and amusing article on Anaxagoras, in which the note (G) is occupied with exposing the contradictions of his system, and especially of his doctrine of the homoiomereiai, or like particles. Unfortunately we cannot have the philosopher's reply to the objections of Aristotle, and to the most subtle of modern dialecticians.

a

The fragments of Anaxagoras have been collected by E. Schaubach, Leipzig, 1827, and W. Schorn, Bonn, 1829. (Diogenes Laertius, ii.; Ritter, Geschichte der Philosophie; Ritter and Preller, Historia Philosoph. GræcoRomanæ ex Fontium Locis contexta.) G. L. ANAXA'GORAS ( ̓Αναξαγόρας), sculptor of Ægina. He made a statue of Jupiter which was dedicated at Olympia by all those nations of Greece that had fought at Platæa against the Persians under Mardonius. On the base of the statue were inscribed the names of the states that had taken part in the battle; those of the Lacedæmonians and Athenians were the first in the list. This battle was fought in the second year of the seventy-fifth Olympiad, or 479 в. с. As the work above referred to was probably dedicated very soon after the termination of the war, Anaxagoras must have lived early in the fifth century before the Christian æra. The statue of Jupiter is mentioned by Herodotus, who says it was of bronze (χάλκεος), and fifteen Greek feet in height. Another work by Anaxagoras is mentioned in an epigram in Brunck's Analecta (i. 117.), who may be the same person as Anaxagoras of Ægina. (Pausanias, ν. 23.)

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ANAXANDER ( ̓Ανάξανδρος), the son of Eurycrates, was the fourteenth king of Sparta of the Agid house. He commanded against Aristomenes in the second Messenian war, and had the direction of the affairs of Sparta from its commencement (в. с. 685) to the last year of it (B. c. 668). (Pausanias, iii. 14. 4. iv. 15. 1. and 22. 3.; Thirlwall, Hist. of Greece, i. 367.)

R. W-n.

ANAXANDER, a Greek painter noticed by Pliny, of uncertain time and country, but of considerable merit. (Hist. Nat. xxxv. 40.) R. N. W.

ANAXANDRA, daughter of the painter Nealces, attained distinction in painting. [NEALCES.] R. N. W.

ANAXANDRIDES ( ̓Αναξανδρίδης), the

son of Leon, was the fifteenth king of Sparta of the Agid line, and the sixteenth including Aristodemus. He ascended the throne, probably in B. c. 560, about the time when Crœsus, king of Lydia, began to reign. His reign was of considerable duration, for his eldest son was not born till long after his accession, and had attained maturity when he succeeded him, about B.с. 520. Anaxandrides was twice married; for a long time he was without any children by his first wife, and the ephors and senators of Sparta, being anxious about the succession, requested him to divorce her. This he refused to do, but at their earnest entreaty he married another woman, and kept two separate establishments for his wives; "a practice by no means customary at Sparta." By his second wife he had issue Cleomenes, his eldest son and successor; about the time of whose birth his first wife was also delivered of a son, called Dorieus, who on the death of his father withdrew from Sparta to seek a foreign settlement. Anaxandrides had also two other sons by his first wife, Leonidas and Cleombrotus; the younger of whom was the father of Pausanias who conquered at Platæa, and the ancestor of the future kings of the Agid line. In the reign of Anaxandrides the Spartans were at last successful in a war against the Tegeans of Arcadia, and shortly afterwards, probably about B. c. 554, there came to them an embassy from Cræsus requesting their aid against the Persians. The colleague of Anaxandrides was Ariston. (Herodotus, i. 65-69. v. 39-41.; Pausanias, iii. 3.) R. W-n.

ANAXANDRIDES ( ̓Αναξανδρίδης), the son of Anaxander, an Athenian comic poet of the middle comedy, was a native of Cameirus in Rhodes, or according to some writers of Colophon in Ionia, and appears to have gained his first dramatic victory B. c. 376. He is said to have written no less than sixtyfive dramas, of which ten were successful : of thirty-five of these the titles are known; twenty-three from Athenæus alone. Some of them, such as the " Tereus," the " Ulysses," &c., would lead us to suppose that he frequently travestied and turned into burlesque the stories of the mythical ages of Greece. He is also said to have been the first comic poet who made love intrigues the principal subjects of his dramas. Nor was he sparing in his allusions to his contemporaries in his plays. Thus in one of them he ridicules Plato by name, and in another, the " Protesilaus," he mentions Callistratus and Melanopus, two Athenian orators of the day (B. c. 371). In B. c. 347 he exhibited at the games celebrated by Philip, king of Macedon, at Dium, a circumstance from which we should infer that he was a writer of some repute; and the inference is confirmed by the statement of a critic quoted by Athenæus, (ix. 374.), as well as by the frequent mention made of him by Aristotle (Rhet. iii.; Ethic. ad Nicom. vii. 10.). From the dates of his supposed first victory, and the exhibition at Dium, Anaxandrides must have written comedy for thirty years, and indeed we are told that he lived to old age. (Athenæus, 1. c.) He also wrote dithyrambic poetry. He was handsome in person and studiously elegant in dress, but of such an impatient temper, that instead of altering his comedies when unsuccessful, he used to take them to the perfumers' shops to be cut up and destroyed. (Suidas, ̓Αναξανδρίδης; Marmor. Par. No. 71.; Diogenes Laertius, iii. 26.; Clinton, Fasti Hell.; Bode, Gesch. der Hellen. Dichtkunst. iii. 2. p. 444.; A. Meineke, i. p. 367.)

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ANAXARCHUS ( ̓Ανάξαρχος) of Abdera, was a pupil of Diomenes of Smyrna, or, according to some authorities, of Metrodorus of Chios. He attended Alexander in his Asiatic expedition, в. с. 334. It seems he was not much of a courtier, and that he took oссаsion to reprove the king sometimes. After Alexander's death he fell into the hands of Nicocreon, tyrant of Cyprus, whose enmity he had incurred. Nicocreon avenged himself by pounding Anaxarchus in a mortar. The philosopher bore the torment with fortitude. Owing to his freedom from passion and his tranquillity he was called Eudæmonicus, or the Happy. No writings of his are mentioned by Diogenes. (Diogenes Laertius, ix.; Arrian, Anab. iv. 9, 10.)

G. L.

ANAXIDA'MUS ( ̓Αναξίδαμος), the son of Zeuxidamus, was the eleventh king of Sparta of the house of the Proclids, and the twelfth including Aristodemus. Pausanias records of him that in his reign the Messenians were vanquished for the second time

him by Justin (iv. 2.), Anaxilaus appears to have been distinguished for moderation and justice in the exercise of his authority; and the following saying is ascribed to him, that "to be never outdone in acts of kindness was a more happy thing than to wear a crown." (Stobæus, Sermon 46.) In the first year of his reign, Anaxilaus was concerned in the following event. The city of Miletus had been recently taken by the Persians, and the inhabitants who escaped were invited by the people of Zancle in Sicily to settle at a place in that island called the "Fair Headland." They accepted the offer, and taking some Samian emigrants with them, touched at Locri in Italy on their voyage. Anaxilaus, hearing of their arrival there, persuaded them to seize upon Zancle itself, the military population of which was then besieging a neighbouring city. They did so; but they were themselves not long afterwards forcibly expelled from Zancle, by Anaxilaus, who planted a new colony there, comprised of a mixture of men of several different races, and changed the name of the city to Messana (now Messina), from Messana in Peloponnesus, the home of his ancestors. The next historical notice of Anaxilaus occurs under the year в. с. 480. His father-in-law Terillus had been expelled from his city of Himera, by Theron, “monarch" of Agrigentum in Sicily, and Anaxilaus applied to Hamilcar, the Carthaginian leader, for assistance in restoring him. This was granted, Anaxilaus giving two of his sons as hostages to Hamilcar, who accordingly invaded Sicily with a very large force, which however was defeated by Theron and his ally Gelon, on the same day as the battle of Salamis, в. с. 480. In в. с. 477, or thereabouts, we are told on the autho

nesus; a notice which proves him to have survived B. c. 668. His colleague of the Agid line was Anaxander. (Pausanias, iii. 7. 6. iv. 15. 1.; Clinton, Fasti Hellen. i. 339.)

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ANA'XILAS, or ANAXILA'US ( ̓́ΑναξίAas), the son of Cretinas, called by Greek writers the "tyrant of Rhegium," a title which merely implies that he gained his authority by usurpation, and the overthrow of the established government. He was descended from one of those Messenians who, on the subjugation of their country by the Spartans, emigrated (B. c. 666) from the Peloponnesus to Rhegium in the south of Italy, where some of their countrymen had already settled at the close of a former war with the Spartans. Anaxilaus married Cydippe, the daughter of Terillus, king of Himera in Sicily, and raised himself to the supreme power by seizing on the citadel of Rhegium (B. c. 494), the government of the city having previously been oligarchical. He retained his authority for eighteen years, till his death in B. c. 476. From the character given of

Anaxilaus, for some reason not stated, had resolved to “extirpate utterly" his neighbours the Locrians: a resolution not very consistent with the moderation of character for which he is praised by Justin. In this design, however, he was prevented by the interposition of Hiero, king of Syracuse, who had married his daughter. Another passage in the life of Anaxilaus is the victory which he gained at the Olympian games in the mule chariot-race, and in honour of which he wished the lyric poet Simonides to write him an ode. This the poet refused to do, ostensibly because such a victory was an unworthy subject for his muse, but in reality because Anaxilaus did not offer him sufficient pay. Anaxilaus then offered more, upon which the poet complied with his request, and dignified the mules with the title of the "wind-footed daughters of mares." In memory of this event, it is supposed that some of the Messenian coins had on their reverses either an ἀπήνη or mule-chariot, or an Olympic crown, with a hare on the obverse. The hare is accounted for by a story (Pollux,

ANAXIMANDER.

first animals he said were produced in a mixture of water and earth, and were furnished with prickly coats; in course of time they came on dry land, broke through their covering, and soon died. It seems probable that he considered there was a kind of successive development of animal forms, of which man was the last product. His mechanical philosophy, which allowed of nothing except eternal separation and union of the particles of the infinite, and recognised no other power, must have presented considerable difficulties when he came to apply it to the production of living beings.

It was consistent with the notion of a perpetual motion of all the particles, that there should be destruction of things as well as generation. All generated things are ultimately resolved into their elements; worlds are infinite in number, and are continually coming into existence and going out of it. Thus the infinite is a being in a constant state of change as to the relation of its component parts in space, and its change is by its own moving power; yet it is not conceived as any thing else than an infinite number of particles infinitely moving. The matter moved was not viewed by Anaximander, so far as we know, as opposed to a moving power: his moving power was in his matter. It was near a century later that Anaxagoras taught a distinction between the moved and the moving; and we may conjecture, that in this long intermediate period the mechanical doctrines had been gradually undergoing modification under the influence of the dynamical. (Diogenes Laertius, ii.; Plutarch, De Placitis Philosophorum; Ritter, Geschichte der Philosophie, 2d ed.; Ritter et Preller, Historia Philosoph. Græco-Romanæ ex Fontium Locis contexta; Clinton, Philol. Museum, i. 89. on the date of Anaximander.) G. L.

ANAXIMANDER ( ̓Αναξίμανδρος), also a Milesian, and the son of one Anaximander, was an historical writer in the Ionic dialect. He was a contemporary of the Persian king Artaxerxes Mnemon, who reigned from B. c. 424 to B. c. 405. (Diogenes Laertius, ii. ; Suidas, ̓Αναξίμανδρος.)

G. L.

ANAXIMENES ( ̓Αναξιμένης), the son of Eurystratus, a native of Miletus. The time of his birth is variously given. According to Apollodorus he was born in the 63d Olympiad (в. с. 528-525). If this date is correct, he cannot have been the pupil of Anaximander, as it is commonly stated, for Anaximander died either during or shortly after the 58th Olympiad. Diogenes says that Anaximenes died about the time of the capture of Sardes, an event which, from the expression, we must conclude to be the capture of Sardes by Cyrus, в.с. 546. The confusion in the short notice of Anaximenes by Diogenes renders his authority of no value; and the age of Anaximenes is uncertain. But, inde

ΑΝΑΧΙΜENES.

pendent of the dates, there are good reasons for not admitting Anaximenes to have been a pupil of Anaximander, which are founded on the difference of their speculative opinions, and on the fact that the best ancient authorities viewed the doctrines of Anaximenes in connection with those of Thales, and those of Anaximander as differing from the doctrines of Thales and Anaximenes.

Anaximenes wrote in the Ionic dialect in a simple style, and Theophrastus compiled a work on his opinions. This is all that we know of his life. His doctrines are to be collected from writers of various ages, many of whom certainly had very inexact notions of his doctrines, the blame of which may belong both to Anaximenes and themselves.

The opinions of Anaximenes belong to that branch of the Ionic school, if this term may be used, which is called the dynamical, as opposed to the mechanical, to which Anaximander belonged. According to Anaximenes the primal principle was Aer (ἀήρ), of which all things are formed, and into which all things are resolved. He illustrated this doctrine by the human soul or vital principle, or whatever he understood by Psyche (ψυχή), for there is nothing to show precisely what he meant by this term: "Our psyche," he says, "is Aer, and holds us together (συγκρατεῖ), and Pneuma and Aer envelope and contain the universe (κοσμός).” Thus the notion of a universal principle of life was derived from analogy to the living principle in man. This original Aer was infinite, but the things which were formed of it were finite: it was a consequence, that this original was in itself incomprehensible, and only became an object of comprehension in the particular forms which it assumed, as, for instance, through the effects of heat, cold, motion. This system required no opposition to be conceived between Deity and the universal principle, and it might be said consistently that Aer was Deity, and the deities and every thing that was Deity were of Aer. This view of his philosophy, which seems to be consistent with the authorities and with itself, has not prevented such errors as we find in Cicero, who states that Anaximenes considered Aer to be Deity, and that it was produced, was infinite, and always in motion; an exposition which involves a selfcontradiction, for the infinite cannot be conceived as produced, nor did Anaximenes so conceive it. As his original principle was the origin of all things, he ascribed to it an eternal motion, without which change could not be conceived, and the phænomena of the universe were a successive development of life. The infinite being one, this development could only be effected by condensation and rarefaction, and the differences in things as objects of our comprehension were only a difference in the degrees of condensation. He seems to have assumed, conformably to the popular notion, four general states of con,