but lecturing with him on social subjects, and even on occasion preaching in Unitarian pulpits. By far her best-known achievement, however, was her Battle Hymn of the Republic,' inspired in 1861 by the sight of Northern troops marching to the tune of 'John Brown's body;' but she had before that published two collections of poems, as later, in 1866, she published Later Lyrics. Mrs Howe was a conspicuous advocate of prison reform and of woman's suffrage. She published books on sex and society and on education, a Life of Margaret Fuller, a collection of Margaret Fuller's love-letters to a Mr Nathan (1903), and a volume of her own Reminiscences (1899). From Sunset Ridge (1898) was a collection of her poems, new and old.

Alice Cary (1820-71) and Phoebe Cary (1824-71), daughters of a farmer near Cincinnati, published poems jointly in 1851, attained great literary and social success through their gifts, secured the patronage and friendship of Horace Greeley and Whittier, and in their deaths were divided by only three months. Alice was the author of the Clovernook Papers and Clovernook Children, tales of Western life. Besides more than one collection of poems, she published several domestic novels, including Hagar, Married not Mated, and The Bishop's Son. Phoebe's principal books were Poems and Parodies and Poems of Faith, Hope, and Love, besides some excellent hymns and occasional pieces. Her best-known hymns are 'Nearer Home' and 'One sweetly solemn thought.' There is a Memorial of the two sisters by Mrs Mary C. Ames (1873).

Maria Susanna Cummins (1827-66), born at Salem, Massachusetts, began to write in 1850 for the Atlantic Monthly and other magazines. Her The Lamplighter (1854)-a rather sentimental and lachrymose tale of the fortunes of an orphan girl-had an amazing success; 40,000 copies sold in two months; and it was read and reprinted almost as zealously in Britain as at home. It is still read on both sides of the Atlantic, spite of its old-fashioned air. Miss Cummins's later novels, Mabel Vaughan (1857), El Fureidis (1860), and Haunted Hearts (1864) did not meet with any such success or add at all to her reputation.

Alfred Thayer Mahan, born in 1840 at West Point, the son of one of the professors there, studied at the United States Naval Academy, and from 1856 till 1896 served in the navy, as captain from 1885 on. His writings on naval science and history are luminous and authoritative, and include The Gulf and Inland Waters (1883), The Influence of Sea Power on History (1890), The Influence of Sea Power on the French Revolution and the Empire, The Interest of the United States in Sea Power, The Problem of Asia, and Types of Naval Officers (1902), besides Lives of Admiral Farragut and of Nelson, and books on the war in Cuba and the South African War of 1899-1902.

Francis Bret Harte

was born in Albany, New York, on 25th August 1839. As a boy of fifteen he went with his mother to California, and became in turn a schoolmaster, a miner, and a compositor, eventually in 1857 obtaining an engagement on the Golden Era of San Francisco, to which he contributed his first sketches (Miss amongst others) dealing with mining life. From 1864 to 1870 he was Secretary of the United States Mint in San Francisco. In the former year he wrote for the newly founded literary magazine The Californian, which also numbered among its contributors C. W. Stoddard

and S. L. Clemens (Mark Twain'). The Condensed Novels, parodies of celebrated novelists, which he began in the Golden Era, were continued in the Californian. In 1868 he had founded the Overland Monthly, and to this magazine he contributed many of the stories that made him famous, The Luck of Roaring Camp, The Outcasts of Poker Flat, Miggles, Tennessee's Partner, and The Idyll of Red Gulch, as well as Plain Language from Truthful James (better known as The Heathen Chinee), a humorous poem that achieved a remarkable popularity throughout the English-speaking world. Later he became a contributor to the Atlantic Monthly, and spent much time in lecturing tours. In 1870 and 1871 he published three volumes of his collected poems. In 1878 he was sent to Crefield as United States Consul, and two years later in the same capacity to Glasgow. In

1885 he gave up official work and came to London, where he resided until his death.

Bret Harte did many things in literature, and did nearly all of them well. He was a poet, often humorous, sometimes tender, and again nobly patriotic; his Condensed Novels show a power of parody unequalled in pungency and aptness by any writer since Thackeray; he could write romances distinguished by gentle and refined feeling. It is, perhaps, as the delineator of the life of Californian miners in the early days that he will chiefly be remembered. His characters are rough and lawless men, and the language they speak suits their nature. But Bret Harte's magic touch shows the soul of goodness in things evil. In his sketches the gambler, the outcast, the lost woman, even the ruffian with the guilt of blood on his conscience, are capable of noble acts of selfsacrifice and devotion. We are not allowed to forget that they are uncouth human beings, but their essential humanity rather than their uncouthness is insisted on. In Bret Harte's method there is no mawkishness. From this defect he was saved by his abundant humour. This quality of his, rooted as it was in his deeper feelings, cannot be specially defined as American. It is the humour of the great masters of literature all the world over. Bret Harte was a most prolific writer up to the day of his death, but his later work, admirable as much of it is, lacks the freshness of those earlier efforts of which it is, indeed, often a mere repetition. He died on 5th May 1902, and was buried at Frimley in Surrey. His Life has been written by Mr T. Edgar Pemberton (1903, with bibliography).

Joaquin Miller is the pen-name of CINCINNATUS HEINE MILLER, an American poet, born in Wabash district, Indiana, in 1841. Removing with his parents to Oregon in 1854, he became a miner in California, was with Walker in Nicaragua, and afterwards lived with the Indians till 1860. He then studied law in Oregon, and set up in practice in 1863, after a Democratic paper that he edited had been suppressed for disloyalty. He was a county judge from 1866 to 1870, and then visited Europe; in England his first volume of verse was published. He afterwards settled as a journalist in Washington, and in 1887 in California, ultimately making his home in Oakland. In 1890 he revisited England; and in 1897-98 was correspondent in Klondyke for a New York journal. His pen-name he adopted on the publication of his first volume of poetry from the baptismal name of a Mexican brigand in whose defence he had written a pamphlet. His poems include Songs of the Sierras (1871), of the Sunlands (1873), of the Desert (1875), of Italy (1878), and of the Mexican Seas (1887), and Chants for the Boer (1900); his prose works, The Danites in the Sierras (1881), Shadows of Shasta (1881), and '49, or the Goldseekers of the Sierras (1884). He also wrote The

Danites, The Silent Man, '49 (dramatised from his story by himself), Tally Ho, and one or two other plays and melodramas, a Life of Christ, and My Life among the Modocs (1873). A collected edition of his poems first appeared in 1882; and in a long poem called As it was in the Beginning (1903) he claims to 'call aloud from his mountaintop as a seer.'

A

Sidney Lanier (1842–81) was born at Macon in Georgia, of Huguenot stock, and graduated at Oglethorpe College before he entered the Confederate army. His health suffered much in hardships endured as a blockade-runner; after the war he was a shopman, a teacher, and a lawyer in succession; and next, an accomplished musician, he earned his livelihood as first flute in the orchestras of Baltimore and New York. romance, Tiger Lilies (1867), had proved a failure; but his literary ability was so manifest that he was asked to write the ode for the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876, and in 1879 he was installed as lecturer on English literature in the Johns Hopkins University. A course of lectures on The Science of English Verse, original and suggestive, was published as a book (1881); another course on The English Novel (1883) was unfinished at his death. Shakespeare and his Forerunners was not published till 1902. In spite

of his ill-health and the distractions of his laborious

life, he wrote poems in virtue of which he is by many regarded as the most important American poet of his time, 'Corn,' 'The Song of the Chattahoochee,' 'The Marshes of Glynn,' and the Centennial cantata being amongst the best known. His adaptations of Froissart and of the Mabinogion have made him known to several generations of youthful readers; his Letters reveal the poet and the musician; and there is a memoir of him by W. H. Ward prefixed to his collected poems as edited by his widow in 1881 (new ed. 1884).

John Fiske (1842–1901) was originally called Edmund Fiske Green, but at thirteen adopted the name of his maternal grandfather. Born at Hartford, Connecticut, he studied at Harvard, where afterwards he was lecturer, librarian, and member of the board of overseers. He was admitted to the Bar, but never practised; he wrote much on philosophy and history, contributed to the development of the evolution doctrine, and was well known throughout the Union as a lecturer. His first publication (on tobacco and alcohol) in 1868 was followed in 1872 by his work on Myths and Mythmakers. His Cosmic Philosophy was mainly an exposition of Herbert Spencer; his Darwinism and other Essays was eminently suggestive; he applied the evolution theory to historical problems; and in Man's Destiny, The Idea of God, The Origin of Evil, and Through Nature to God (1899) he defended spiritual religion. His Discovery of America (1892) was but one of a long series of important works on American history, which

included Old Virginia and her Neighbours, The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America, New France and New England, A Critical Period, The American Revolution, and The Mississippi Valley in the Civil War (1900). He wrote a work on Theodore Parker, A Century of Science, a history of the United States for schools, and with James Grant Wilson edited Appleton's Cyclopædia of American Biography.

William Dean Howells was born at Martin's Ferry, Belmont County, in the state of Ohio, on 1st March 1837. His father, William Cooper Howells, a busy but not always prosperous printer and journalist, was of Welsh Quaker descent, and

WILLIAM DEAN HOWELLS.
From a Photograph by Notman.

a Swedenborgian in creed, so that in that form of quasi-theological belief the future novelist was brought up. According to his own statement he was 'self-taught,' which must mean simply that in boyhood he had no regular schooling, since he appears to have been afterwards a student at Harvard and Yale, and at one or other of these colleges took the M.A. degree. From the age of eleven he had worked under his father as a compositor, and ten years later he developed into a journalist, and wrote in the Cincinnati Gazette and the Columbus State Journal. A Life of Abraham Lincoln, written as part of the 'literature' of the momentous presidential election of 1860, won him the post of consul at Venice, where he lived from 1861 to 1865, acquiring a knowledge of the Italian language and literature, and receiving impressions which were reproduced for the public in 1866 in two volumes on Venetian Life, and were to mould some of his future work. Returning to America

after the expiry of his term of office, he worked as a contributor to the New York Tribune, Times, and Nation, and wrote articles for the Atlantic Monthly, of which he was editor from 1872 to 1881. The year before this appointment he had appeared as a novelist, at the age of thirty-four. Their Wedding Journey, his first venture, had an immediate popularity, well deserved by its brightness and cleverness, and was followed by many other novels, most of them equally successful. A Chance Acquaintance (1873) embodies a dexterous. handling of a trivial incident in a Canadian excursion. A Foregone Conclusion (1874) is a pathetic tale of an impossible attachment, with its scene in Venice. In succession to A Counterfeit Presentment (1877) came The Lady of the Aroostook, an amusing variant on the fertile theme of the American girl abroad, which is not quite felicitously sustained throughout. The Undiscovered Country (1880), Dr Breen's Practice (1883), and A Woman's Reason (1884) were followed in 1885 by The Rise of Silas Lapham, which in its description of the prosperity and fall of a parvenu family in Boston shows some of its author's most effective work. His later novels include An Indian Summer (1886), Annie Kilburn (1888), The World of Chance (1893), An Open-Eyed Conspiracy (1898), The Ragged Lady, Their Silver Wedding Journey, and The Kentons (1902). Though not without his faults as an artist in fiction, and chargeable with dwelling on trivial details, Mr Howells has had a wide and well-deserved popularity both in his own country and Great Britain, through his picturesque and amusing stories of New England life. He has written more than seventy books in all, including travels, farces or plays, and many clever essays and criticisms. Notable books were Tuscan Cities (1885), Modern Italian Poets, Criticism and Fiction, Impressions and Experiences, Literary Friends and Acquaintance (1900), and Letters Home (1903).

George Washington Cable was born in New Orleans in 1844 of Virginian and New England stock, and as a slenderly educated clerk at nineteen volunteered into the Confederate service. After the war he earned for some time a precarious living, and, laid up with malarial fever caught at survey work on the Atchafalaya River, became an accountant in a cotton agency, and began to write for the New Orleans papers. His Creole sketches in Scribner made his reputation, revealing as they did an interesting and as yet unexploited phase of American social life. Old Creole Days (1879) was followed by The Grandissimes (1880), perhaps his best book, a tender and sympathetic rendering of the American-French life of Louisiana; as also, in the same key, by Madame Delphine (1881), Dr Sevier, Bonaventure, and Strange True Stories of Louisiana (1889). The Creoles of Louisiana (1884), The Silent South (1885), The Negro Question (1890) are political, social-economic disquisitions. Later novels are John March, Southerner (1895), The

Cavalier (1901), and Bylow Hill (1902). In 1885 he settled in New England-ultimately at Northampton in Massachusetts.

Henry James,

at once an American and an English novelist, was born in New York on 15th April 1843. His father was Henry James (1811-82), a well-known original and theological writer and lecturer, whose doctrine is described by the latest historian of American literature as 'a sort of Ishmaelitish Swedenborgianism,' which only his two sons'inheritors of his style'-the novelist and William James, Professor of Philosophy at Harvard, and Gifford Lecturer in 1901 at Edinburgh, are 'capable of analysing.' Yet he has expounded his views in a long series of works (Christianity the Logic of Creation one of them) which are admittedly acute, profound, suggestive, and sometimes entertaining.

Henry, who until his father's death in 1882 was known as Henry James, junior, was educated under the paternal eye in a cosmopolitan fashion at New York, Geneva, Paris, and Boulogne. In 1862 he became a student at the Harvard LawSchool, but his bent was not to jurisprudence, and after the usual preparation of magazine work, he won public notice as a novelist with his Roderick Hudson in 1875. Six years earlier he had gone for good to Europe, where his life has since been spent in England (in the Isle of Wight), with regular periods of sojourn in Italy. His earlier novels dealt mainly with American life and character at home and abroad, and were produced with great fertility and rapidity. In 1878 appeared The American, The Europeans, and Daisy Miller, the last a delightful sketch of the naïveté of the American girl. Even more keen and delicate are some of the shorter stories-The Pension Beaurepas, for example, with its contrasted vignettes of the Ruck family and the Churches mother and daughter, and A Bundle of Letters (1879), describing the experiences of some American maidens in France.

Washington Square (1880) has its scene in New York, and its theme in a painful strife between father and daughter over the latter's love affair, the treatment of which shows the author at a higher and more serious mood than ordinary, handling a strong situation and treating it with relentless and even painful rigour. In the following years appeared The Portrait of a Lady (1880), rather spoiled by its prolixity; The Bostonians (1886); The Princess of Casamassima (1886), a study of English society; A London Life (1889); and The Tragic Muse (1890).

In his analytical treatment of character and incident, Mr James seems to have been strongly influenced by the examples of Flaubert and his disciples, and of late he has carried that method to a degree of refinement which sometimes approaches to morbidity. This manner was developed in Terminations (1896), and even more strikingly in What Maisie Knew (1897), a perfectly pitiless

analysis of the thoughts and feelings of an unfortunate child. A dexterous handling of the semisupernatural gives a greater distinction and a stronger interest to the first story in the volume entitled Two Magics (1898). In the Cage, published in the same year, carries the art of abstraction to the farthest limit in the withholding of the heroine's name. In his most recent works, The Turn of the Screw (1898), The Soft Side (1900), The Sacred Fount (1901), The Wing of the Dove (1902), The Better Sort (1903), a volume of short sketches, and The Ambassadors (1903), the method has become superlatively subtle, so that, while

admiring the extreme cleverness of the performance, one is perplexed and irritated by the studious allusiveness of the narrative and the incessant rapier-play of the elliptical dialogue, in which each interlocutor seems to be bent on anticipating the riposte of the other.

Mr James has also distinguished himself as a critic, although in a less degree than as a novelist. His best achievement in this line is the volume of studies on French Poets and Novelists (1878), which displays an exceptional acquaintance and sympathy with modern French literature. Partial Portraits (1888) errs by too amply justifying its title, and the monograph on Hawthorne (1879) in the 'English Men of Letters' series is a dainty piece of work, though perhaps hardly weighty enough for its theme. America has produced many more powerful writers than Henry James, but none perhaps that has attained a greater delicacy of touch or a

more perfect literary finish. In 1903 he published a delightful book on William Wedmore Story and his Friends, 'from letters, diaries, and recollections.'

William James, son of Henry James, senior, was born in New York in 1843, and, educated at home and in Europe, took the Harvard M.D.; and from 1872 he lectured at Harvard on anatomy, physiology, psychology, and philosophy in succession. He became a professor in 1881. He is a keen and pregnant thinker, a luminous and attractive writer, defends what have been thought theological paradoxes on non-theological grounds, maintains orthodox positions in an unorthodox and original manner, and combines empirical method with a strongly idealistic body of thought. As an analytical psychologist he has exercised even more influence in America and in Europe than as a metaphysician. His works comprise Principles of Psychology (1900), and a smaller manual (1902); The Will to Believe; Human Immortality; The Varieties of Religious Experience -the last-named work being lectures delivered as Gifford lecturer at Edinburgh University in 18991901. In 1884 he had with filial piety edited his father's Literary Remains.

Richard Watson Gilder, born at Bordentown, New Jersey, in 1844, studied law, served in the army, and did journalistic work on various papers in New Jersey before he became editor of Scribner's Monthly and then of The Century Magazine. He has founded or promoted numerous literary and artistic clubs, leagues, and associations; and he ranks high amongst contemporary American poets in virtue of The New Day (1875), The Celestial Passion, The Great Remembrance, Five Books of Song (1894), In Palestine (1898), Poems and Inscriptions (1901), and other volumes or series of songs and poems.

Edward Noyes Westcott (1846-98), born in Syracuse, New York, was a banker in his native town, and died before his first novel was published—David Harum, a story in which the interest turned on the shrewd, humorous, eccentric character of a country banker; probably no work of American fiction has had such instantaneous success. An unfinished work by him, The Teller, was published in 1901 with a short memoir.

Julian Hawthorne, biographer of his famous father (see page 755), was born at Boston in 1846, studied at Harvard and Dresden, and has done much journalistic work; and in addition to his Saxon Studies, his 'Confessions and Criticisms,' has written a history of the United States and a book on American literature. He has also published a score of novels and stories, longer and shorter, of which Garth (1877), Sebastian Strome, Dust, Beatrix Randolph, Fortune's Fool, Mrs Gainsborough's Diamonds, Prince Saroni's Wife, Archibald Malmaison, A Fool of Nature, One of those Coincidences (1899), have been notable.

Joel Chandler Harris, born in Eatonton, Georgia, in 1848, was in turn printer, lawyer, and journalist. His Uncle Remus (1880), with its thoughts and sayings and doings of 'Brer Rabbit,' as conceived by the negroes of the South, opened a new field in literature, and quickly carried his name to the Old World, at once to children and to students of folklore. Later works are Nights with Uncle Remus (1883), Mingo, Daddy Jake, The Story of Aaron, Tales of the Home Folks, Plantation Pageants, The Chronicles of Aunt Minervy Ann (1899).

James Lane Allen, born in Kentucky in 1849, taught in Kentucky University and elsewhere, but since 1891 has been famous for his novels, tales, and sketches illustrating various aspects of his native Blue Grass region-Flute and Violin, A Kentucky Cardinal (the cardinal bird), Aftermath, A Summer in Arcady, The Choir Invisible, The Reign of Law (1900).

Eugene Field (1850-95), born at St Louis, Missouri, was a journalist at twenty-three, and much of his best work to the columns of gave a Chicago paper, his column of 'Sharps and Flats' being for years a characteristic feature. His work in prose and verse varies from tender pathos and delicate humour to the broadly farcical; he is best known as humourist and as poet of childhood. His best verses for children are those in With Trumpet and Drum (1892); A Little Book of Western Verse may fairly represent another type of work; and his humour is perhaps best illustrated in The Love Affairs of a Bibliomaniac.

Edward Bellamy (1850–98), born at Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts, studied at home and in Germany, and was admitted to the Bar; but most of his life was devoted to journalism and authorship. Looking Backward (1888), an imaginative tour de force, had a prodigious success at home and abroad, and was followed by a less brilliant sequel, Equality (1897). Other novels were Dr Heidenhoff's Process (1879), Miss Ludington's Sister (1884), and The Duke of Stockbridge (1898); and he wrote on sociological subjects.

James Whitcomb Riley, born at Greenfield, Indiana, in 1853, painted signboards, cobbled plays for a theatrical troupe, and in 1875 began contributing verses to the papers-the verses in the local dialect that secured for him the sobriquet of 'the Hoosier poet.' He is equally well known for his poems for and of children. To the first category belong The Old Swimmin' Hole and various other collections; to another, Old-Fashioned Roses, Rhymes of Childhood, and A Child World.

Francis Marion Crawford, son of a famous American sculptor (Thomas Crawford, 1814-57) long resident in Rome, was born at Bagni di Lucca in North Italy in 1854, and studied at Concord in New Hampshire, at Trinity College, Cambridge, at Karlsruhe, and at Heidelberg. At Rome he de