sight; he is lost in inaction; and the fancy dwells on no other object than the success of the two armies that we see contending in war.

Illus. 2. The unity of the epic action is not to be so strictly interpreted, as if it excluded all episodes, or subordinate actions.

3. Episodes are certain actions, or incidents, introduced into the narration, connected with the principal action, yet not of such importance as to destroy the main subject of the poem, if they had been omitted.

Example. Of this nature are the interview of Hector with Andromache, in the Iliad; the story of Caucus, and that of Nisus and Euryalus, in the Æneid; the adventures of Tancred with Erminia and Clorinda, in the Jerusalem; and the prospect of his descendants exhibited to Adam, in the last books of Paradise Lost.

598. Such episodes as these, are not only permitted to an epic poet; but, provided they be properly executed, are great ornaments to his work. The rules regarding them are the following:

599. Rule first. They must be naturally introduced; they must have a sufficient connection with the subject of the poem; they must be inferior parts that belong to it; but not mere appendages stuck to it.

Illus. The episode of Olinda and Sophronia in the second book of Tasso's Jerusalem, is faulty, by transgressing t is rule. It is too much detached from the rest of the work; and being introduced so near the opening of the poem, misleads the reader into an expectation, that it is to be of some future consequence; where as it proves to be connected with nothing that follows. In proportion as any episode is slightly related to the main subject, it should always be the shorter. The passion of Dido in the Eneid, and the snares of Armida in the Jerusalem, which are expanded so fully in these poems, cannot with propriety be called episodes. They are constituent parts of the work, and form a considerable share of the intrigue of the poem.

600. Rule second. Episodes ought to present to us objects of a different kind, from those which go before, and those which follow, in the course of the poem. For it is principally for the sake of variety, that episodes are introduced into an epic composition. In so long a work, they tend to diversify the subject, and to relieve the reader, by shifting the scene. In the midst of combats, therefore, an episode of the martial kind would be out of place; whereas, Hector's visit to Andromache in the Iliad, and Erminia's adventure with the shepherd, in the seventh book of the Jerusalem, afford us a well-judged and pleasing retreat from camps and battles.

601. Rule third. As an episode is a professed embellishment, it ought to be particularly elegant and well-finished; and, accordingly, it is, for the most part, in pieces of this kind, that poets put forth their strength. The episodes of

Teribazus and Ariana, in Leonidas, and of the death of Hercules, in the Epigoniad, are the two greatest beauties in these poems.

602. The unity of the epic action necessarily supposes, that the action be entire and complete; that is, as Aristotle well expresses it, that it have a beginning, a middle, and an end.

Illus. Either by relating the whole, in his own person, or by introducing some of his actors to relate what had passed before the opening of the poem, the author must always contrive to give us full information of every thing that belongs to his subject; he must not leave our curiosity, in any article, ungratified; he must bring us precisely to the accomplishment of his plan; and then conclude.

603. The second qualification of an epic action, is, that it be great; that it have sufficient splendour and importance, both to fix our attention, and to justify the magnificent apparatus which the poet bestows upon it.

Obs. This is so evidently requisite as not to require illustration; and indeed, hardly any who have attempted epic poetry, have failed in choosing some subject sufficiently important, either by the nature of the action, or by the fame of the personages concerned in it.

604. It contributes to the grandeur of the epic subjec that it be not of a modern date, nor fall within any period of history with which we are intimately acquainted.

Obs. Both Lucan and Voltaire have, in the choice of their subjects, transgressed this rule, and they have, upon that account, succeeded worse. Antiquity is favourable to those high and august ideas which epic poetry is designed to raise. It tends to aggrandize, in our imagination, both persons and events; and what is still more material, it allows the poet the liberty of adorning his subject by means of fiction. Whereas, as soon as he comes within the verge of real and authenticated history, this liberty is abridged.

605. The third property required in the epic poem, is, that it be interesting. It is not sufficient for this purpose that it be great. For deeds of mere valour, how heroic soever, may prove cold and tiresome.

Illus. Much will depend on the happy choice of some subject, which shall, by its nature, interest the public: as when the poet selects for his hero, one who is the founder, or the deliverer, or the favourite of his nation; or when he writes of achievements that have been highly celebrated, or have been connected with important consequences to any public cause. Most of the great epic poems are abundantly fortunate in this respect, and were, no doubt, as interesting to those ages and countries in which they were composed, as they are to us.

606. But the chief circumstance which renders an epic poem interesting, and which tends to interest, not one age

or country alone, but all readers, is the skilful conduct of the author in the management of his subject.

Illus. He must so contrive his plan, as that it shall comprehend many affecting incidents. He must not dazzle us perpetually with valiant achievements; for all readers become tired of constant fighting, and battles; but he must study to touch our hearts. He may sometimes be awful and august; he must often be tender and pathetic; he must give us gentle and pleasing scenes of love, friendship, and affection. The more an epic poem abounds with situations which awaken the feelings of humanity, the more interesting it is: and these always form the favourite passages of the work. No epic poets are more happy in this respect than Virgil and Tasso.

607. Much, too, depends on the characters of the heroes, for rendering the poem interesting; that they be such as shall strongly attach the readers, and make them take part in the dangers which the heroes encounter.

Mus. These dangers, or obstacles, form what is called the nodus, or the intrigue of the epic poem: in the judicious conduct of which consists much of the poet's art. He must rouse our attention by a prospect of the difficulties which seem to threaten disappointment to the enterprise of his favourite personages; he must make these difficulties grow and thicken upon us, by degrees; till, after having kept us, for some time, in a state of agitation and suspense, he paves the way, by a proper preparation of incidents, for the winding up of the plot in a natural and probable manner. It is plain, that every tale which is designed to engage attention, must be conducted on a plan of this sort.

608. A question has been moved, Whether the nature of the epic poem does not require that it should always end successfully? Most critics are inclined to think, that a successful issue is the most proper; and they appear to have reason on their side. An unhappy conclusion depresses the mind, and is opposite to the elevating emotions which belong to this species of poetry.

609. With regard to the time or duration of the epic action, no precise boundaries can be ascertained. A considerable extent is always allowed to it, as it does not necessarily depend on those violent passions which can be supposéd to have only a short continuance.

Illus. The Iliad, which is formed upon the anger of Achilles, has, with propriety, the shortest duration of any of the great epic poems. According to Bossu, the action lasts no longer than forty-seven days. The action of the Odyssey, computed from the taking of Troy to the peace of Ithaca, extends to eight years, and a half: and the action of the Eneid, computed in the same way, from the taking of Troy to the death of Turnus, includes about six years. But if we measure the period only of the poet's own narration, or compute from the time in which the hero makes his first appearance, till the conclusion, the duration of both these last poems is brought within a much smaller com

pass. The Odyssey, beginning with Ulysses in the island of Calypso, comprehends fifty-eight days only; and the Eneid, beginning with the storm, which throws Æneas upon the coast of Africa, is reckoned to include, at the most, a year and some months.

Obs. Having thus treated of the epic action, or the subject of the poem, we proceed next to make some observations on the actors or personages. 610. As it is the business of an epic poet to copy after nature, and to form a probable, interesting tale, he must study to give all his personages proper and well-supported characters, such as display the features of the human nature. This is what Aristotle calls, giving manners to the poem.

Obs. It is by no means necessary, that all his actors be morally good; imperfect, nay, vicious characters, may find a proper place; though the nature of epic poetry seems to require, that the principal figures exhibited should be such as tend to raise admiration and love, rather than hatred or contempt. But whatever the character be which a poet gives to any of his actors, he must take care to preserve it uniform, and consistent with itself. Every thing which that person says, or does, must be suited to this uniformity, and must serve to distinguish him from any other.

611. Poetic characters may be divided into two kinds, general and particular.

1st. General characters are, such as wise, brave, virtuous, without any farther distinction.

2nd. Particular characters express the species of bravery, of wisdom, of virtue, for which any one is eminent.

Illus. They exhibit the peculiar features which distinguish one individual from another, which mark the difference of the same moral quality in different men, according as it is combined with other dispositions in their temper. In drawing such particular characters, the genius of the poet is chiefly exerted.

Obs. In this part, Homer has principally excelled; Tasso has come the nearest to Homer; and Virgil has been the most deficient.

612. It has been the practice of all epic poets, to select some one personage, whom they distinguish above all the rest, and make the hero of the tale. This is considered as essential to epic composition, and is attended with several advantages.

Illus. 1. It renders the unity of the subject more sensible, when there is one principal figure, to which, as to a centre, all the rest refer. It tends to interest us more in the enterprise which is carried on; and it gives the poet an opportunity of exerting his talents for adorning and displaying one character, with peculiar splendour.

2. It has been asked, Who then is the hero of Paradise Lost? Satan, it has been answered by some critics; but Adam is undoubtedly the hero; that is, the capital and most interesting figure in the poem.

613. Besides human actors, there are personages of another kind, that usually occupy no small place in epic poet

ry; namely, the gods, or supernatural beings; forming what is called the machinery of the epic poem.

Illus. 1. Almost all the French critics decide in favour of machinery, as essential to the constitution of an epic poem. This decision seems to be founded on the practice of Homer and Virgil. These poets very properly embellished their story by the traditional tales and popular legends of their own country; according to which, all the great transactions of the heroic times were intermixed with the fables of their deities. (Illus. Art. 29.)

2. In other countries, and other ages, where there is not the like advantage of current superstition, and popular credulity, epic poetry has been differently conducted. Lucan has composed a very spirited poem, certainly of the epic kind, where neither gods nor supernatural beings are at all employed. The author of Leonidas has made an attempt of the same kind, not without success; and beyond doubt, wherever a poet gives us a regular heroic story, well connected in its parts, adorned with characters, and supported with proper dignity and elevation, though his agents be every one of them human, he has fulfilled the chief requisites of this sort of composition, and has a just title to be classed with epic writers.

3. Mankind do not consider poetical writings with a philosophical eye. They seek entertainment from them; and for the bulk of readers, indeed for almost all men, the marvellous has a great charm. It gratifies and fills the imagination; and gives room for many striking and sublime descriptions. In epic poetry, in particular, where admiration and lofty ideas are supposed to reign, the marvellous and supernatural find, if any where, their proper place. They both enable the poet to aggrandize his subject, by means of those august and solemn objects which religion and supernatural agents introduce into it; and they allow him to enlarge and diversify his plan, by comprehending within it the realities of earth, the probabilities of Elysium and of Tartarus, men and invisible beings, and the whole circle of the universe.

614. At the same time, in the use of this supernatural machinery, it becomes a poet to be temperate and prudent. He is not at liberty to invent what system of the marvellous he pleases. It must always have some foundation in popular belief. He must avail himself in a decent manner, either of the religious faith, or the superstitious credulity of the country wherein he lives, or of which he writes, so as to give an air of probability to events which are most contrary to the common course of nature.

Illus. Whatever machinery he employs, he must not overload us with it; nor withdraw human actions and manners too much from view, nor obscure them under a cloud of incredible fictions. His chief business is to relate to men, the actions and the exploits of men; by these principally he is to interest, and touch our hearts; and, therefore, if probability be altogether banished from his work, it can never make a deep or a lasting impression. Paradise Lost being altogether theological, Milton's supernatural beings form not the machinery, but are the principal actors in the poem.

615. Allegorical personages, fame, discord, love, and the