position. But, in respect of future time, even the indicative cannot denote performance; and the subjunctive must be destitute of this tense altogether.

Hlus. 1. For, as an action can have no real existence till the time of its execution arrive; so language can express nothing concerning it, but the present views and dispositions of the agents, who may foretell performance, or promise to perform. I shall write is significant only of prediction or intention, the execution of which must be future; and therefore, in the future tense, the indicative approaches the nature of the subjunctive and imperative, and expresses chiefly disposition. The main difference between them seems to be this, that the future of the indicative, along with the signification of disposition, conveys something positive or affirmative with regard to execution. If the two other moods imply at all the execution of the dispositions which they denote, they hold it forth as altogether contingent or conditional.

2. All the sentiments which can exist, or be expressed, relative to future actions, must refer either to the views of them which the agent formerly entertained, or now indulges. Of the appearances which these actions will assume when they come into existence, or of the sentiments which will be entertained concerning them, he can know nothing; and, therefore, these appearances and sentiments can neither be the subjects of thought nor of language. Hence, since past and present intentions and dispositions are the only circumstances with which we either are or can be acquainted, it is evident that a mood, limited to express intention and disposition, cannot admit a future tense, because no ideas of future intentions and dispositions exist in the mind of man, which it may communicate.

3. The tense I shall have loved, commonly called "the future of the subjunctive," has no participation with the usual import of the other tenses of that mood; for it is expressive of no sentiment that is future and conditional as to its execution, but is equally positive and affirmative with I shall love, the tense commonly called the future of the indicative. They both signify intention relative to future action; and the only difference between them is, that, taking the execution of both to refer to some fixed point of time, the action of the former will be finished, when the action of the latter will be finishing.

67. THIS THEORY of the moods, then, gives to the indicative seven tenses, and to the subjunctive not more than four.

Illus. 1. The indicative will exhibit PRESENT TIME, denoted by the tenses present, and perfect present; as, I love, I have loved-qikéw, пεчiηxα-amo, amavi: PAST TIME, by the imperfect and pluperfect tenses, I was loving, I had loved-piksov, èлeqianxeir—amabam, amaveram: FUTURE TIME, by the tenses styled the future of the indicative, and the future of the subjunctive, I shall love, I shall have loved-qiinoo, ginoour-amabo, amavero: and the whole of past time denoted by the Aorist, I loved-iqiyoα.

2. The subjunctive will exhibit PRESENT TIME, divided into present and perfect present; as I may love, I may have loved-yika, in -amem, amaverim, and PAST TIME divided into perfect and pluperfect, I could love, I could have loved-amarem, amavissem.

68. Tenses and moods, in the Greek and Latin languages, are generally discriminated by different inflexions of the verb; in the modern languages they are chiefly denoted by AUXILIARIES.

Illus. 1. The auxiliaries of the indicative mood are, have, had, shall, will.

Have and had mark time; the former denoting that the action is finished just now; the latter that some interval has elapsed since it was completed.

Shall and will express futurity, but with it some affection or disposition of the agent. Thus, in the first person, shall barely foretells, or predicts performance; as, I shall walk; "hereafter I am to perform the action of walking." Will implies promise or engagement; I will walk; "I am determined hereafter to walk." In the second and third persons, these auxiliaries exchange their additional significations; and shall denotes promise or engagement; as, thou shalt read: will expresses futurity; as, he will run: that is to say, according to promise or engagement, " thou shalt read;" and " he will hereafter run."

2. The auxiliaries of the PRESENT of the subjunctive are may and can; and of the PERFECT, might, could, would, should.

May and can denote capacity or ability; as, I may write, I can read. Might and could express the perfect time of may and can; and like them are significant of ability or capacity; but the execution depends on circumstances which have not yet come into existence. Thus, "I might see him," and "I could tell him," express that my capacity to see and tell him is complete, and I only wait for an opportunity to put it in action.

Would denotes inclination, should obligation, but the performance hangs upon some incident or power, not under the control of the agent; as, "I would read, if I had a book;" " I should walk, if I had leave."

3. The auxiliary to be, usually called a substantive verb, because it is confined to the signification of existence only, is generally and naturally an auxiliary of the passive form of the verb. In this case it is always attended with the perfect participle of the same form; as, "I am loved,"-" I have been loved," I shall be loved." But added to the present participle of the active form, and supported by the other auxiliaries, there is not a mood or tense of the active form of the verb, which to be may not denote; as, "I am loving,' -66 I may be loving,' -"Be thou loving,"-To be loving," are expressions equivalent to, I love, I may love, love thou, to love.

69. The INFINITIVE MOOD requires no agent to be prefixed or understood in the form of a nominative. The infinitive, thus disengaged from all connexion with person or number, and significant of action in general, without consideration of any agent, approaches the nature of a substantive noun, and in all languages is frequently substituted in its place. The infinitive, farther, used as a substantive, is nearly equivalent to the present participle, employed in the

same manner.

Example. Thus to hear is nothing more than the action of hearing; and every such participle, in English, may be converted into a substantive, by prefixing one of the articles, the usual characteristics of substantives. (Art. 57.)

Obs. 1. The occasions on which it is requisite to express action without reference to any agent, are very numerous, and the use of the infinitive is of course very frequent. Its relation to the other moods is similar to that of abstract substantives to the adjectives from which they are formed; as, goodness from " good." (Art. 59. Obs. 2.) But good denotes a quality inherent in the particular substance to which it is applied; and goodness expresses a quality common to all the substantives to which it is competent to apply the adjective.

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2. In like manner, the finite moods exhibit always some action, performed by an agent, either specified or understood as the nominative to the verb. The infinitive denotes the action, without reference to any particular agent; but the action is practicable only by the agents who may be made nominatives to the finite moods.

Thus, as goodness denotes a quality common to all objects that are good; so to read denotes an action which can be performed by all agents who have learned letters.

3. The infinitive also, like the participle, retains so much of its verbal quality, in denoting action, as to be susceptible of time; and it possesses variations to express the three great divisions of past, present, and future. It seldom, however, introduces a sentence, but depends most commonly on some verb that precedes it; hence the time which it assumes, is to be reckoned from that of the antecedent verb.

4. Taking, then, the time of the antecedent verb, as a fixed point, in computing the time of the infinitive, we employ the present, the past, or the future tense, according as the action which it denotes happens to be the same, of prior, or of posterior time to that of the antecedent verb; as, "I am happy to see him,"-" I am happy to have seen him," 1 I am happy to be about to see him."

70. OF THE ADVERB. The chief use of the adverb, as its name imports, is to modify the verb. The circumstances of action, expressed by tenses and moods, are all of a nature too general to be sufficient for the purposes of communication. It is often necessary to be much more particular in ascertaining both the time and the manner, but particularly the place of the action. The important office of the adverb, is to accomplish these ends.

Illus. 1. Though tenses display a great degree of ingenuity in their formation, they rarely descend farther than to denote performance in past, present, or future time. But we find it necessary to be often much more minute, and to signify whether the action was done yesterday, lately, long ago; or is to be done now, immediately, instantly; or will be done quickly, presently, hereafter; or will be repeated often, seldom, daily, once, twice, thrice.

2. All the circumstances communicated by moods are of a very general nature. The indicative expresses performance only; the subjunctive and imperative denote bare intention or disposition; while the infinitive scarcely descends farther than the name of the action, without specifying its nature.

3. The very varied and numerous situations of society, demanded the signification of many circumstances of action much more particular; and to express these, a large class of adverbs was devised.

These adverbs indicate quality and manner, either simply, as wisely, prudently, cautiously; or positively, as truly, certainly, unquestionably; or contingently, as perhaps, probably, possibly; or negatively, as no, not, erroneously; or conjointly, as together, generally, universally; or separately, as apart, solely, solitarily. Sometimes they denote magnitude, as wholly, altogether, exceedingly; or comparison, as preferably; or passion, as angrily, lovingly, furiously, valiantly; or merit, as learnedly, prudently, industriously.

4. The circumstances of action relative to place are imparted by another copious class of adverbs. The principal views which they exhibit are, whether the action is performed in a place, or in moving to it, through it, or from it. Of the first sort are here, there, where, within, without; of the second, hither, thither, and the compounds of the syllable ward, as toward, forward, backward, upward, downward; of the third, nowhere, elsewhere, everywhere; of the fourth, hence, whence, thence.

5. Of the adverbs which signify time and manner, two, one from each class, often attend on the same verb, by an analogy similar to the appearance of every verb, both in a tense and a mode, on the same occasion. The adverb significant of time is generally placed before the verb, and after it is placed the adverb significant of manner. That which precedes circumscribes the time expressed by the tense, and that which follows limits the manner expressed by the mood.

6. Adverbs are susceptible of comparison, sometimes regular, as soon, sooner, soonest; but oftener irregular, as readily, more readily, most readily. One adverb is frequently employed to qualify another, as too confidently, very seldom. And, finally, they are often applied to circumscribe adjectives, as unmercifully severe, highly criminal, superlatively excellent.

71. PREPOSITIONS are words prefixed to substantives, to denote the various relations which they bear to one another.

Illus. In English, they are generally monosyllabic words, chiefly employed to supply the deficiency of the inflections commonly called cases. But in the Welsh language they undergo inflection with the cases of nouns. In English they occasionally lend their aid to furnish compounded verbs, as foretell, undervalue; and in all cases they act as proportional ingredients of composition, by adding to it the full import of their powers.

72. CONJUNCTIONS are used to connect single substantives, clauses of sentences, or members of periods.

Illus. Conjunctions are divided into various classes, copulative, disjunctive, and adversitive; but their most useful distinction relates to the correspondence which they have to one another in different clauses or members of a period; and in the right management of which, both the perspicuity and propriety of language are not a little concerned.

Obs. We sometimes find pronouns connecting sentences as well as

conjunctions; and the latter not unfrequently, by a violent ellipsis, performing the substantive office of the former; but in this case the conjunction is usually connected with an indefinite relative, as "Let such as presume," for "Let them who presume."

73. INTERJECTIONS indicate those impressions which so suddenly and violently affect the mind of the speaker or writer, as to burst asunder the regular train of his thoughts and expressions, and thence demand immediate

utterance.

Obs. This definition demonstrates that the proper use of these words must be extremely limited; and experience proves that the incidents which excite such vehement agitation are not very common. Corol.)

(Art. 4. Illus. Interjections are sparingly used even in the glowing and animated languages of antiquity; and they appear less seldom with grace, in the more tame and phlegmatic tongues of modern times. They rarely occur with us but when they interrupt, not language, but silence; and there are few persons who court those seasons of high passion when their sentiments are too violent for communication by words, and with difficulty admit utterance, at intervals, by sighs and groans.

THE NATURE AND

CHAPTER II.

CHARACTER OF THE USE WHICH GIVES
LAW TO LANGUAGE.

74. ELOQUENCE has a particular connexion with language, as its intention is to convey our sentiments into the minds of others, in order to produce upon them a determinate effect; and language is the only vehicle by which this conveyance can be made.

Corol. The art of speaking, then, is not less necessary to the orator than the art of thinking. Without the latter the former could not have existed. Without the former, the latter would be ineffectual. And the operations of the latter go on by means of words, for there is no evidence that we think without language.

75. LANGUAGE is mainly a species of fashion,* in which, by the general but tacit consent of the people of a particular state or country, certain sounds come to be appropriated to certain things, as their signs, and certain ways of inflecting and combining those sounds come to be established, as denoting the relations which subsist among the things signified. (Chap. I. Book I. and Chap. I. Book II.) Illus. 1. The philosophical view which we have taken of the chief

* Campbell, Phil. of Rhet. b. ii. c. 1.