IX. Sophism, for "sophistry." The former denotes a fallacious argument, the latter fallacious reasoning.

X. Remember, for "remind." We are reminded by others: we remember of ourselves.

XI. Plenty, for " plentiful." The latter is an adjective, the former a noun. The misapplication of either is a gross vulgarism.

XII. Doctrines, for "precepts." The former are credenda, which we are required to believe; the latter, we are called on to obey, as rules of life.

115. THE VULGARISM springs from an affectation of an easy, familiar, and careless manner of writing; but it is an error to imagine, that the less pains one bestows upon style, it must appear the more natural.

Obs. 1. Ease is one thing, carelessness another; and the former is most commonly the result of the greatest care. It is like ease in motion, which, though originally the effect of discipline, when once it hath become habitual, has a more simple and more natural appearance, than is to be observed in any manner which untutored nature can produce.

But ease in writing flows from art, not chance;
As those move easiest who have learnt to dance.*

116. The love of novelty, and a fondness for variety, are the two sources whence flow those numerous inadvertencies with which the style of many writers is chargeable. (Art. 78, Illus.)

Illus. 1. The former, when excessive, tends directly to misguide us, by making us disdain the beaten track, for no other reason but because it is the beaten track. The idea of vulgarity, in the imaginations of those who are affected with this principle, is connected with every thing that is conceived as customary. The genuine issue of this extreme, is, not only improprieties, but even absurdities, and fustian and bombast.

2. The latter, to wit, a fondness for variety, produceth often the same effect, though more indirectly. It begets an immoderate dread of becoming tedious, by repeating too frequently the same sound. In order to avoid this, a writer resolves, at any rate, to diversify his style, let it cost what it will. But this fancied excellence usually costs more than it is worth; for to it, very often, propriety and perspicuity are both sacrificed.

Obs. From these illustrations, we derive the following criteria:

Crit. I. The mind is fatigued by the frequent recurrence of the same idea that performance which grows dull as we advance, is chargeable with an excess of uniformity.

Corol. If, therefore, there be a remarkable paucity of ideas, a diversity of words will not answer the purpose, or give to the work the appearance of variety.

II. On the contrary, when an author is at great pains to vary his expressions, and for this purpose ever deserts the common road, he will, to an intelligent reader, but the more expose his poverty, the more * Pope's Imitations.

he is solicitous to conceal it. You will discover this penury, when an author is always recurring to such words as custom hath appropriated to purposes different from those for which we use them.

117. IMPROPRIETY IN PHRASES is ascertained, when the expression, on being grammatically analysed, is discovered to contain some inconsistency.

Illus. 1. Such is the phrase of all others, after the superlative degree, which, when interpreted by the rules of English syntax, implies a thing different from itself; as it "celebrates the Church of England as the most perfect of all others." Properly, either-" as more perfect than any other;"-or," as the most perfect of all churches."

2. On this principle, Milton falls into an impropriety in these words:

3. The general laws of the language, which constitute the most extensive and important use, may be pleaded against these expressions. Now it is one principal method of purifying a language, to lay aside such idioms as are inconsistent with its radical principles and constituent rules; or as, when interpreted by such principles and rules, exhibit manifest nonsense. Nor does the least inconvenience result from this conduct, as we can be at no loss to find expressions of our meaning altogether as natural, and entirely unexceptionable.

4. "Than the rest of our neighbours," is an impropriety which may be corrected by omitting the words in Italics. And when Swift, in his voyage to Brobdignag, says, "I had like to have gotten one or two broken heads;" one unavoidably asks, "how many heads he had on his body?" That "once or twice" he had like to have got his head broken for his impertinence, one can easily conceive.

5. One thing may be cut into two or more; but it is inconceivable, that by cutting, two or more things should be made one. We cannot therefore speak of shortening discourse, " by cutting polysyllables into one."§

6. A wrong, wilfully committed, is no mistake. The words used in the following sentence, are therefore incompatible :-" I have not wilfully committed the least mistake."||

7. A pure limpid stream cannot also be foul with stains; therefore the following lines,

So the pure limpid stream, when foul with stains,

Of rushing torrents and descending rains, T

involve in them an absurdity, rather than an impropriety.

8. When an author says one thing and means another, his fault may be classed with impropriety in phrases; or it may come under the article of perspicuity.

9. It is an incongruity in the combination of words, to speak of 'falling into a man's conversation ;"** and to " fall into conversation

*Swift's Apology for the Tale of a Tub. † Paradise Lost. "Voyage to Laputa."

Addison's Cato.

Ibid b. iv. Swift's "Remarks on the Barrier Treaty." **Spectator, No. 49.

with a man,' ,"* is little better than the impropriety in another dress; for grammatical purity, the most essential of all the virtues of elocution, would teach another construction.

118. PRECISION is the last ingredient of perspicuity. Precision means, that all redundant phraseology shall, without hesitation, be expunged; and that no more words and phrases, however pure and proper, shall be employed, than are necessary to convey the meaning.

Illus. The exact import of precision, may be drawn from the etymology of the word. It comes from " præcidere," to cut off: it imports retrenching all superfluities, and pruning the expression so as to exhibit neither more nor less than an exact copy of his idea who uses it. It is often difficult to separate the quantities of style from the qualities of thought; and it is found so in this instance; for, in order to write with precision, though this be properly a quality of style, one must possess a very considerable degree of distinctness and accuracy in his` manner of thinking. (Art. 74. Corol.)

119. The words which a man uses to express his ideas may be faulty in three respects; they may either not express that idea which the author intends, but some other which only resembles, or is akin to it; or, they may express that idea, but not quite fully and completely; or, they may express it, together with something more than he intends.

Illus. 1. Precision stands opposed to all these three faults; but chief ly to the last. In an author's writing with propriety, his being free from the two former faults seems implied. The words which he uses are proper; that is, they express that idea which he intends, and they express it fully; but to be precise, signifies that they express that idea, and no more. There is nothing in his words which introduces any foreign idea, any superfluous, unseasonable accessary, so as to mix it confusedly with the principal object, and thereby to render our conception of that object loose and indistinct. This requires a writer to have, himself, a very clear apprehension of the object he means to represent to us; to have laid fast hold of it in his mind; and never to waver in any one view he takes of it; a perfection to which, indeed, few writers attain.

2. The following examples possess all the ingredients now specified. "Those who live in the world, and in good company, are quicksighted with regard to every defect or singularity in behaviour; the slightest irregularity in motion, in speech, or in dress, which, to a peasant, would be invisible, escapes not their observation."-"The very populace in Athens, were critics in pronunciation, in language, and even in eloquence; and in Rome at present, the most illiterate shop-keeper is a better judge of statues and of pictures, than many persons of refined education in London." No word or phrase is wanting; no word or phrase is superfluous; all are pure and all are proper.

* Campbell's Phil. of Rhet. Vol. I. Book ii. Chap. iii.
† Lord Kame's Elements of Criticism.

120. The use and importance of precision, may be deduced from the nature of the human mind. It can never view, clearly and distinctly, above one object at a time. If it must look at two or three together, especially objects among which there is a resemblance or connexion, it finds itself confused and embarrassed. It cannot clearly perceive in what they agree, and in what they differ.

Illus. Thus, were any object, suppose some animal, to be presented to me of whose structure I wanted to form a distinct notion, I would desire all its trappings to be taken off, I would require it to be brought before me by itself, and to stand alone, that there might be nothing to distract my attention. The same is the case with words. If, when you would inform me of your meaning, you also tell me more than what conveys it; if you join foreign circumstances to the principal object; if, by unnecessarily varying the expression, you shift the point of view, and make me see sometimes the object itself, and sometimes another thing that is connected with it; you thereby oblige me to look on several objects at once, and I lose sight of the principal. You load the animal you are showing me, with so many trappings and collars, and bring so many of the same species before me, somewhat resembling, and yet somewhat differing, that I see none of them clearly.*

121. This forms what is called a loose style; and is the proper opposite to precision. It generally arises from using a superfluity of words. Feeble writers employ a multitude of words to make themselves understood, as they think, more distinctly; and they only confound the reader.

Illus. They are sensible of not having caught the precise expression, to convey what they would signify; they do not, indeed, conceive their own meaning very precisely themselves; and, therefore, help it out, as they can, by this and the other word, which may, as they suppose, supply the defect, and bring you somewhat nearer to their idea; they are always going about it and about it, but never just hit the thing. The image, as they set it before you, is always seen double; and no double image is distinct. When an author tells me of his hero's courage in the day of battle, the expression is precise, and I understand it fully. But if, from the desire of multiplying words, he must needs praise his courage and fortitude; at the moment he joins these words together, my idea begins to waver. He means to express one quality more strongly; but he is, in truth, expressing two. Courage resists danger; fortitude supports pain. The occasion of exerting each of these qualities is different; and being led to think of both together, when only one of them should be before me, my view is rendered unsteady, and my conception of the objects indistinct.

Corol. From what has been said, it appears that an author may, in a qualified sense, be perspicuous, while yet he is far from being precise. He uses proper words, and proper arrangement; he gives you the idea as clear as he conceives it himself; and so far he is perspicuous; but the ideas are not very clear in his own mind; they are

*Blair's Lect. on Rhet. Vol. I.

loose and general; and, therefore, cannot be expressed with precision. All subjects do not equally require precision. It is sufficient, on many occasions, that we have a general view of the meaning. The subject, perhaps, is of the known and familiar kind; and we are in no hazard of mistaking the sense of the author, though every word which he uses be not precise and exact.

122. Precision is frequently violated by the introduction of supernumerary words and phrases, (Illus. 1, and 2.); but chiefly by the accumulation of those which are either nearly synonymous, or which, though not synonymous, include the signification of one another. (Art. 123.)

Illus. 1. "I should be glad to know what intervals of life such persons can possibly set apart for the improvement of their minds."* The adverb possibly is superfluous. It suggests no meaning not implied in the auxiliary can, which denotes all the power or capacity of an agent.

2. "The pleasures of imagination are more preferable than those of sense or intellect."-" The very slightest singularity." More is superfluous, when added to preferable, and very is the same when added to slightest. Preferable, and slightest, express every idea contained in more preferable, and very slightest. These redundances are derived from conversation, the vulgarities and inaccuracies of which frequently insinuate themselves insensibly into our written language.

123. The more frequent violations of precision, those indeed more difficult to be avoided and corrected, are of the second class, and appear when words or phrases are introduced, which have their meaning anticipated by the general sense, or by other words of the sentence.

Illus. 1. Horace himself is not altogether unexceptionable.

"Quod si me vatibus Lyricis inseres,

Sublimi feriam sidera vertice."

The adjective sublimi is perfectly agreeable in sound, nay, necessary to complete the versification, but it is superfluous in communicating the sense; because, after acquainting us that his head would strike the stars, the poet had no need to add that it would be raised very high. 2. Addison begins the tragedy of Cato with a series of tautologies. "The dawn is overcast, the morning low'rs,

And heavily in clouds brings on the day,

The great, the important day, big with the fate

Of Cato and of Rome."

In the first two lines, the same sentiment is three times repeated in different words. "The dawn is overcast," means no more than" the morning lowers," and both these phrases denote exactly the same sense with the line that follows," and heavily in clouds brings on the day." Three synonymous words appear in the third line; "the great, the important day, big with the fate." The author might as well have repeated any one of these words three times, had it not been for the sake of the measure.

3. What is farther remarkable, is, that this example points out one of the classical sources from which Addison derived many of the splen

* Swift.

† Addison.

Elements of Criticism.