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rection; though the tyrant should rage, and threaten destruction; though the hurricane should lay open the bed of the sea, and the earthquake should tear the globe in pieces; though the stars should fall from their spheres, and the frame of nature should be dissolved; yet, according to Horace, Virtue will protect her votaries, and the good man will remain tranquil amid the ruins of the world."

Illus. A similar gradation is perceptible, as in the preceding instance. The members increase both in extent and cadence. The rising series of contrasts convey inexpressible dignity and energy to the conclusion.

Scholium. The proper union of sentences, also, is a matter of considerable importance to the effect of a composition. It seems, indeed, to be difficult, if not impracticable, to assign any rules relative to the proper intermixture of sentences expressive of strong, or even of moderate passion, as feelings on such occasions supersede all the dictates of theory, and the considerations of sound. (Illus. Art. 73.) But in grave and extended compositions, where the chief aim of the author is to instruct and amuse, the practice best supported by reason and experience, is, to intermix short, long, and intermediate sentences, in such a manner as to introduce as great variety as possible of cadences. Great care, however, must be taken to conceal all attention to art. If it become apparent, it disgusts the reader, and generally loses its effect. The species of sentence preferred by the writer should always seem to be the most proper and natural he could have employed. Its length should be determined always by the sense, never by the punctuation. (Illus. Corol. and Art. 147.)

CHAPTER II.

OF THE ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED IN THE STRUCTURE SENTENCES, AND THE ARRANGEMENT OF SINGLE WORDS.

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139. WE derive little light from the names, ambitus, circuitus, comprehensio, circumscriptio, employed by Cicero, and approved by Quinctilian, as definitions of a period.These names are manifestly derived from the Greek term Tegíodos; and the Latin critics have not ventured to proceed farther than their masters. (Illus. 2. Art. 130.)

Obs. Without having recourse to the meaning of a period, or the species of dependence that subsists among its members, to explain its nature, they have been satisfied with some indefinite speculations about its length, and the artificial measure in which it ought to be composed. They tell us, it should seldom exceed the length of four hexameter verses, or require more time to pronounce it than is requisite for one complete respiration of a full-grown man.* But the practice of the most perfect orators of antiquity frequently transgresses

these rules.

*Cic. Orat. chap. 66. Quinct. lib. IX. chap. 4

140. If two or more leading thoughts or agents, which have no natural relation to one another, nor any dependence on one another, and which concur not in pointing toward any one object, are introduced into a sentence, they will destroy its unity. This is a frequent and gross error in the structure of sentences.

Example. "As much as the fertile mould is fitted to the tree, as much as the strong and upright trunk of the oak or elm is fitted to the twining branches of the vine or ivy, so much are the very leaves, the seeds, and the fruits of these trees fitted to the various animals; these again, to one another, and to the elements where they live, and to which they are as appendices, in a manner, fitted and joined; as either by wings for the air, fins for the water, feet for the earth, and by other correspondent inward parts, of more curious frame and texture."*

Illus. This long and involved period presents two agents; trees lead the first member, animals the second and the third. It should, therefore, it seems, be divided into two, or, perhaps, three sentences, with the proper agents prefixed. In this view, the first member may remain as it is, but the second and third members will assume the following appearance. "Animals, again, are fitted to one another, and to the elements where they live, and to which they are as appendices. They are adapted by wings for the air, fins for the water, feet for the earth, and by other correspondent inward parts, of more curious frame and texture."

141. Errors are frequently committed in the extent of periods, which are sometimes swelled to too great length; at other times formed too short or abrupt.

Obs. A long period, perfectly clear and well constructed, is always beautiful and pleasant, if it be not so prolonged as to exhaust the patience and attention of the reader. But it is extremely difficult to compose such periods; and, for this reason, a great many of them are ungraceful and obscure.

142. It is, perhaps, more necessary, at present, to remonstrate against a deviation to the opposite extreme. The style of many of our present writers is too short and abrupt. (Art. 135.)

Illus. An affectation of sprightliness, or of oracular wisdom, seems to have infected some of our authors, and to have tempted them to employ that laconic diction, which is very current with our neighbours, the French, and which is generally supposed most correspondent to this species of composition. The appearance of such a style, is, however, no symptom of the general corruption of the public taste and ear. But when we recollect the progress and revolutions of literature, both in Athens and Rome, we cannot be too quick-sighted in apprehending danger. The manner of the authors who succeeded the most flourishing æra of the Grecian eloquence, undoubtedly displayed the strongest attachment to this mode of style; and many of

* Shaftesbury.

the most conspicuous writers of Rome, posterior to the Augustan age, furnish examples of the same kind of composition.

143. The arrangement of the AGENT, the ACTION, and the SUBJECT, the chief ingredients in all members, sentences, and periods, is almost invariable. The agent appears first, the action succeeds, and the subject, if there be one, takes its station last.

Illus. If the agent or the subject be modified or illustrated by adjectives, or the action be extended or restricted by adverbs, the dependent words assume their stations in juxta-position to their principals, the adjectives to their substantives, and the adverbs to their verbs. The adjective is placed before its correspondent substantive, when it has no circumstance depending on it; but it is situated after its substantive when it is followed by some modification. "A wise man." "A good book." "A spacious apartment." But we say, A man wise for himself." "A book good for amusement." "An apartment convenient for company.' Adverbs generally follow neuter, but precede active verbs. "Cæsar fought bravely." Pompey rashly engaged him at Pharsalia." Our adjectives have no inflexions, and therefore can be arranged only on the principle of juxta-position. (§ II. p. 67.)

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144. Though in every member of a sentence, there must be an agent, an action, and a subject, unless the action be intransitive; there are to be found in many members two, in some three, classes of agents, actions, and subjects, that explain, restrict, or otherwise depend on the primary class, by which the member is discriminated.

Example. "It is usual," says Addison,*" for a man who loves country-sports, to preserve the game on his own grounds, and divert himself on the grounds of his neighbours. My friend Sir Roger generally goes two or three miles from his own house, and gets into the frontiers of his estate before he beats about for a hare or a partridge, on purpose to spare his own fields, where he is always sure of finding diversion, when the worst comes to the worst."

Illus. In the former of these sentences, there is one class only of agents, actions, and subjects, "A man who loves country-sports;" but there are no fewer than three such classes, in the first clause of the latter sentence: "Sir Roger generally goes two or three miles; he gets into the frontiers of his estate, before he beats about for a hare or a partridge." These dependent classes, like dependent words, adjectives, and adverbs, are arranged on the principle of juxta-position, as near to the primary class as is consistent with the intimacy of their relation. (Illus. Art. 143.)

145. Of the arrangement of the other parts of speech, pronouns, participles, prepositions and conjunctions, no directions can be given, that will not be liable to many exceptions. The following principles seem to include every

* Spectator, No. 131.

thing which can, with any confidence, be advanced on the subject.

Illus. 1. Pronouns have no other use in language, but to represent nouns; and, of course, they are commonly called to occupy the stations of the nouns they represent. They should, therefore, be marshalled agreeably to the stations in which their principals would appear. (VI. p. 68, and Art. 71.)

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2. The chief office of prepositions is, to denote the relations of substantives to one another; they are, therefore, placed generally between the related objects, immediately before the one that bears the relation, and as near as possible to the other, to which the relation is borne. "A man of virtue." "Success to industry." "Genius with judgment."

3. Participles, in general, assume the situation of adjectives, of the nature of which they very much partake; but they are also employed frequently to introduce clauses dependent on preceding verbs. "A loving father." "A learned man." "He passed through life, adored by his friends, and respected by all good men." (Illus. 2. Art. 59.) 4. Conjunctions are often introduced to connect single substantives, but more commonly to conjoin clauses of sentences. From their nature they require a situation between the things of which they form a union. (Art. 72.)

5. The interjection, finally, in a grammatical sense, is totally unconnected with every other word in a sentence. Its arrangement, of course, is altogether arbitrary, and cannot admit of any theory.(Art. 73.)

6. If two adverbs attend upon a single verb, one significant of place or time, the other of some modification of the verb, the former is generally situated before the verb, the latter, more intimately connected with the verb, is placed immediately after it, to the exclusion even of the subject, when some circumstance depends upon the subject. "Casar often reprehended severely the ingratitude of his enemies.' every where declared publicly his inclination to preserve the constitution of his country." (Art. 70.)

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7. If one auxiliary attend a verb, along with one adverb, the adverb is generally placed between the auxiliary and the verb. "Folly has always exposed her author." "Wealth may often make friends, but can never produce true peace of mind."

8. If there be two auxiliaries, the adverb is commonly situated between them. "He should certainly have come." "He might easily have known." In passive sentences, however, the adverb is placed after both the auxiliaries; as, "He will be uncommonly agitated." shall be completely ruined." (Art. 70. Illus. 5.)

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9. If there be three auxiliaries, when the sentence must again be passive, the adverb is placed after them all. "I might have been better informed." "He might have been completely educated in that branch of science." "It should have been well authenticated."

10. If two adverbs, with two auxiliaries, attend upon the same verb, the adverbs will be intermixed with the auxiliaries. "I have always been much embarrassed by these inconveniences." "He can never

be sincerely disposed to promote peace." "He might at least have plainly told him.”

11. In the arrangement of two or more prepositions, the relation of concomitance seems to be the most intimate, and, therefore, takes the

precedency of all others. "He went with him to France; he came with him from Rome; he lived with him at Naples, and fought with him in Flanders; he contended with him for fame, but fought with him against his enemies." The relation denoted by from, precedes that signified by to. "He came from Rome to Paris, and from Paris to London." "From a beginning very unpromising, he rose to great influence and wealth." "Society proceeds from barbarity to refinement, from ignorance to knowledge, from wealth to corruption, and from corruption to ruin."

Scholium. These principles are supported by the practice of our purest writers. It is our duty, therefore, to form our style on the most correct models before us, if we would avoid that fluctuating and unsettled imitation which is observable, when the ear is our chief guide, and its dictates are always variable, not seldom whimsical. In a matter of so much consequence, we may, it seems, follow with most confidence the example of the best writers and speakers, explained and supported by the analogies of grammar and of perspicuity. (Art. 80.)

CHAPTER III.

ON THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

146. THOUGH PERSPICUITY be the general head under which we are at present considering language, we shall not confine ourselves to this quality alone, in sentences, but inquire, also, what is requisite for their grace and beauty.

Obs. Aristotle defines a sentence to be a form of speech which hath a beginning and an end within itself, and is of such a length as to be easily comprehended at once.* This, however, admits of a great latitude. For a sentence, or period, consists always of component parts, which are called its members; and as these members may be either few or many, and may be connected in several different ways, the same thought, or mental proposition, may often be either brought into one sentence, or split into two or three, without the material breach of any rule. (Art. 141. and 142.)

147. The first variety that occurs in the consideration of sentences is, the distinction of long and short ones. The precise length of sentences, as to the number of words, or the number of members, which may enter into them, cannot be ascertained by any definite measure. At the same time, it is obvious, that there may be an extreme on either side.

Illus. Sentences, immoderately long, and consisting of too many members, always transgress some one or other of the rules which are necessary to be observed in every good sentence. In discourses that

* Δεξις έχεσα αρχην και τελευτην καθ' αυτην, και μέγεθος ενσυνοπτος

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