Harmony, however, is by some ascribed to | P. Rosetinus, Venice, 1581, fol., there are Tatian, and is said to have induced Eusebius to write his "Canones." A Latin translation of it," Ammonii, vulgo Tatiani Diatessaron, sive Harmonia in Quatuor Evangelia," by Victor of Capua, appeared at Mainz in 1524, 8vo., and at Cologne in 1532, 8vo., and is also contained in the two collections of the orthodox fathers of Basel, 1569, folio, and of Lyon. Othmar Nachtigal published at Augsburg, in 1524, 8vo., a German translation of what he called the Harmony of Ammonius; but it is the translation of a Greek work by a much later writer. The same Nachtigal (his Latinized name is Luscinius) wrote a life of Christ, which he said was compiled from Ammonius: it was revised and edited by Gasp. Brusch, under the title Vita Jesu Christi ex Quatuor Evangelistis ex Ammonii Alex. Fragmentis Græcis Latine versa per O. Luscinium." Erfurt, 1544, 8vo. 66 This Christian Ammonius is probably the person to whom in a Venetian MS. the "Metaphrasis Evangelii Joannis" is ascribed, which usually goes under the name of Nonnus. (Brucker, Historia Crit. Philos. ii. 107.; Hamberger, Zuverlässige Nachrichten, ii. 562.; Adelung, Supplement to Jöcher's Allgem. Gelehrten Lexic. i. 748, &c.; Fabricius, Biblioth. Græc. v. 713, &c.) AMMONIUS, the son of HERMIAS, usually called Ammonius Hermiæ. He and his brother Heliodorus resided for some time at Athens as disciples of Proclus, who died in A. D. 484. Ammonius afterwards taught philosophy at Alexandria in Egypt; and from his school proceeded the most eminent philosophers of the sixth century, such as Simplicius, Asclepias Trallianus, Joannes Philoponus, Damascius, and others. Although, like his master Proclus, he belonged to the school of the New-Platonists, he cultivated the philosophy of Aristotle with great zeal, was more deeply acquainted with it than any of his contemporaries, and treated it with perfect freedom from the prejudices of his own school. According to Damascius, Ammonius was also a good mathematician. He has acquired especial merit as a commentator on the works of other philosophers, particularly of Aristotle, and we still possess some of them, which are of value:- 1. "Commentarius in Isagogen Porphyrii de quinque Prædicabilibus," first printed by Aldus, Venice, 1500, fol. A second edition was edited by J. B. Felicianus, Venice, 1545, 8vo. Of this commentary there are three Latin translations, one by J. B. Rasarius, Venice, 1569, fol.; the second by P. Rosetinus, Venice, 1581, fol., and the third by an anonymous writer appeared at Paris, 1542, fol. 2. A commentary on the Categories of Aristotle, which was first published by Aldus under the title "Commentarius in Prædicamenta Aristotelis, Græce," Venice, 1503, fol. Besides the Latin translation of two others by Rasarius and B. Sylvanius. 3. A commentary on Aristotle "De Interpretatione" (repl punveías), the first edition of which is that by Aldus, Venice, 1503, fol. Besides the Latin translation by Rosetinus, Venice, 1581, fol., there are two others, as of the former commentary, by Rasarius and Sylvanius. All these three commentaries appeared collected, and with Latin translations, at Venice, in 1546, 3 vols. 8vo., and those on Aristotle have recently been published by Brandis in his edition of the "Scholia in Aristotelem," Berlin, 1836, 4to. There is a Greek life of Aristotle, which is printed in most editions of Aristotle's works, and which is usually ascribed to Ammonius Hermiæ, but it is more probable that it is the work of Joannes Philoponus, the pupil of Ammonius, to whom it is ascribed in some MSS. This life has been edited separately, with scholia and a Latin translation of Nunnesius, by L. Holstenius, Leyden, 1621, 8vo., and reprinted at Helmstädt, 1666, 4to. The commentary on the "Isagoge" of Porphyrius contains a dissertation of Ammonius, De Fato," which has been edited separately, together with other ancient works on the same subject, by J. C. Orelli, Zürich, 1824, 8vo. Some other commentaries of Ammonius, as on the Metaphysica and Topica of Aristotle, are still extant in MS., but have not yet been printed. (Fabricius, Biblioth. Græc. v. 704, &c.) AMMONIUS LAMPRENSIS, Sso called from his birthplace, Lampræ in Attica, was the author of a work on altars and sacrifices (περὶ βωμῶν καὶ θυσιῶν), of which Athenæus (xi. 476.) quotes a fragment belonging to the third book. It is frequently referred to by Harpocration and other grammarians. That the author lived before the time of Ammonius who wrote on synonymes is clear from the fact that the latter refers to him (in the article Bwuós). Athenæus also mentions a work of an Ammonius on Athenian courtezans (xiii. 567.), who seems to be the same as the writer on altars and sacrifices. Some writers have inferred, from the kind of knowledge which Plutarch ascribes to his master Ammonius, that he is the same person with this Ammonius of Lampræ. But where everything is so vague and obscure, nothing can be said with certainty. (Fabricius, Biblioth. Græc. v. 712., who in p.722, &c. mentions several other persons of the name of Ammonius.) AMMONIUS, a PERIPATETIC philosopher, who, although he is called piλoλoyúτatos, wrote nothing except some poems and declamations, which are now lost, unless the epigrams in the "Anthologia Græca" be attributed to him. This Ammonius has sometimes been confounded with Ammonius Saccas. AMMONIUS, a PHILOSOPHER who lived about the time of the Emperor Hadrian. He was one of the teachers of Plutarch, who speaks in high terms of his learning. He died at Athens; but whether he was a native of Attica, and is the same as Ammonius Lamprensis, of whom we have spoken above, or whether he was an Egyptian who settled in Attica, as Eunapius states (who, however, seems to confound this Ammonius with Ammonius surnamed Saccas), cannot be decided. Plutarch wrote a life of his master Ammonius, which is not extant. (Plutarch, De Adulatoris et Amici Discrimine, p. 70.; Symposiaca, iii. 1. ix. 15.; Fabricius, Biblioth. Græc. v. 153, &c. 712, &c.) AMMONIUS, a Greek POET, according to Socrates and Nicephorus, wrote an epic poem on the war of the Goth Gainas, which was called raiía. In A. D. 438 he read it to the Emperor Theodosius II., who received it with great approbation. The two verses preserved in the " Etymologicum Magnum" (under μíμavтos) are probably a fragment of this poem. Whether the epigrams in the "Anthologia Græca," which are ascribed to an Ammonius, are the work of this poet Ammonius, or of Ammonius the peripatetic philosopher, to whom Porphyrius ascribes poems and show-speeches, cannot be decided. (Fabricius, Biblioth. Græc. v. 722) AMMONIUS, surnamed SACCAS, from the circumstance of his being obliged in the early period of his life to gain his livelihood at Alexandria by carrying sacks, and acting as a porter in the market. He lived at Alexandria about the end of the second and the beginning of the third century of our æra, and died there in A. D. 241. He was the son of Christian parents, but afterwards embraced the heathen religion, to which he remained faithful to the end of his life. His low occupations during the early part of his life did not prevent his aspiring to higher things, and he seems to have studied philosophy with real enthusiasm and the most ardent desire for truth, The discord and the sectarian spirit of the philosophers of his time, who not only indulged in the most vehement polemics against one another, but also endeavoured to lower in public estimation the great founders of the philosophical schools to which they were opposed, especially Plato and Aristotle, deterred the earnest searcher after truth and unity among the conflicting elements from joining any particular sect. He placed himself between Plato and Aristotle, with the conviction that there must be a higher point of view from which the two might be reconciled. This higher point of view was, in his opinion, probably the common source of the systems of the two philosophers in the East. These or similar considerations led him to strike into a middle path, and he became the founder and the head of that eclectic school of philosophy which is commonly called New Platonism. The new system which he as a built up, and which was an attempt to unite within itself all the great elements of heathen philosophy, was intended to serve bulwark against the growing strength of Christianity; and this system, which maintained itself for several centuries, was indeed the last great phenomenon of heathen intellect and philosophy. Ammonius Saccas did not write anything, but as a teacher he exercised an extraordinary influence, and among numerous disciples who flocked around him we need only mention such names as Longinus, Plotinus, Porphyrius, Herennius, and Origenes. (Brucker, Histor. Critica Philosoph. ii. 205.; Rösler, De Commentitiis Philosophic Ammoniaca Fraudibus et Noris, Tübingen, 1786, 4to.; Fabricius, Biblioth. Græc. v. 701, &c.; Dehaut, Essai Historique sur la Vie et la Doctrine d'Ammonius Saccas, &c. Brussels, 1836, 4to.) L. S. AMNER, JOHN, was organist of Ely cathedral in the reign of James I. He was the immediate successor of George Bancroft, having been elected in 1610, and the more remote one of Dr. Tye. He died at Ely in | 1641, and was succeeded by Robert Claxton. Dr. Tudway's collection contains the following services and anthems by Amner:- 1. Morning and Evening Service in D minor. 2. Morning and Evening Service in G major. 3. Morning and Evening Service (called Cæsar's) in D minor. Anthems: 4. "Oh come hither and hearken." 5. "Christ rising again." 6. “Oh sing unto the Lord." 7. "Lord, I am not high-minded." 8. "Remember not, Lord" (C). 9. Sing, O heavens.” 66 Some of these are also preserved in Ely cathedral, as well as the following anthems: 10. "Lord, in thy wrath" (C). 11. "O Lord, of whom." 12. "O God, my king." 13. "Oh come hither" (C). 14. " A stranger here." 15. " O ye little flock." 16. "I will sing unto the Lord" (C). The words of the anthems marked C are found in Clifford's collection. The name of RALPH AMNER, probably a son of John, appears in the list of "musicians and gentlemen of the chappell" at the coronation of Charles II.; and in "Catch that catch can, or the Musical Companion, 1667," is "a catch, instead of an epitaph, upon Ralph Amner (commonly called the Bull Speaker), who dyed 1664." John Amner published "Sacred Hymns of three, four, five, and six Parts for Voices and Viols, 4to. 1615." (Muniments of Ely Cathedral; Tudway Collection (Brit. Mus.); Clifford's Words of Anthems; Catch that catch can.) E. T. AMNON. [ABSALOM; DAVID.] AMNON, RABBI OF MENTZ (Moguntinus), (YDD ON "). According to the "Shalshelleth Hakkabbala' of R. Gedalia aben Jachija, this rabbi was contemporary with R. Moses Bar Nachman, who is absence of sensation in the human mind while still present in the body: "Dissertatio inauguralis philosophica de Humanæ Mentis àάoeia, seu Sensionis ac Facultatis sentiendi in Mente Humanâ Absentiâ et earum in Corpore nostro organico ac vivo Præsentiâ, quam publice defendet autor Ant. Guil. Amo Guinea-Afer, Philosophiæ, etc. L. C. Magister." Wittenberg, 1734, 4to. At the end of this dissertation are printed several complimentary pieces addressed to the author; among others apparently (for there is some confusion in the statements of Grégoire on the subject) a letter of congratulation from the rector and council of the university, in which they remind him that Terence was, like himself, a native of Africa, and that several martyrs, learned men and fathers of the church, were born there, while it was in a flourishing state, and before, by the extirpation of Christianity, it had relapsed into barbarism. In a letter from the præses or president of the thesis, he addresses Amo in the terms "vir nobilissime et clarissime," and declares that the dissertation is so well make any alterations in it. Grégoire also speaks of the work in high terms: "it shows," he says, "a mind accustomed to meditation: the writer applies himself to establish the differences of phenomena between beings existing without life and living beings a stone exists, but it does not live." In the same year Amo was præses at a thesis sustained by John Theodore Mainer, "on those things which are suitable to the mind or body:" better known as Nachmanides, and who lived about A. M. 5000 (A. D. 1240). R. Amnon is considered as a holy martyr by the Jews, who say that he was put to death by the bishop and magistrates of Mentz on account of his refusing to become a Christian, and that on that occasion he composed the prayer which is used on new year's day and on the day of expiation, which begins with the words "Give the strength of daily holiness." This prayer is in the "Machzor," or Jewish service book, printed at Bologna for the Roman synagogue, A. M. 5301 (A. D. 1541), folio; and also in the "Machzor" printed at Dyrenfurt, A. M. 5463 (A. D. 1703), 8vo. Both these books have a long note appended to this prayer, which gives a detailed account of the occasion on which it was composed, and of the execution, miraculous healing, and translation to heaven of R. Amnon. Father Bartolocci gives this note at full length in his "Bibliotheca Rabbinica," with the addition of some very severe animadversions, in which he brands the whole story, and all similar ones related by the rabbis, as false, and seems greatly scandalised that the Jews should pre-written that he has found it unnecessary to tend to have holy men and martyrs, as well as the Christians, and proceeds to justify all the cruel persecutions of that people, by exile, fire, sword, and gallows, which he asserts were fully merited by them. The author of this story of R. Amnon is R. Ephraim Ben Jacob, who gives as his authority an anonymous writer, who says he copied it from an ancient "Machzor." R. Gedalia, in the "Shalshelleth Hakkabbala," also attributes another prayer to the same R. Amnon: which prayer was formerly in use among the German Jews. It commenced " Come, hear." This prayer is in a "Machzor" of the German Jews, which is among the manuscripts in the Vatican library. Bartolocci also cites another prayer from the ancient "Machzorim," or service books, as written by a R. Amnon. It begins "Pray, I beseech you, before God;" but he does not decide whether it is by the same or another R. Amnon. (Bartoloccius, Biblioth. Mag. Rabb. i. 371— 374.; Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr. i. 201. iii. 128.; R. Gedalia, Shalshelleth Hakkabbala, p. 57.) C. P. H. AMO, ANTONY WILLIAM, a negro born in Guinea about the year 1703, was brought when an infant to Amsterdam, and presented in 1707 to Antony Ulric, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, a prince of some literary taste, and the author of several romances. The duke gave him to his son Antony William, who at a proper age sent the young negro to study at the university of Halle, where in 1729, under the presidency of the Chancellor Ludwig, he sustained a thesis and published a dissertation "De Jure Maurorum." He afterwards removed to the university of Wittenberg, where in 1734 he published another treatise, on the occasional 66 Disputatio philosophica, continens Ideam distinctam eorum quæ competunt vel Menti vel Corpori nostro vivo et organico." He was afterwards made a counsellor of state by the court of Berlin; but on the death of his patron, the Duke of Brunswick, he quitted Europe. In the life of David Henry Gallandat, the founder of the Zeeland Scientific Society, it is stated that in 1753, on a voyage to the Gold Coast, he visited Amo at Axim. "He was living there like a hermit," according to Winckelman, the biographer of Gallandat, "and had the reputation of being a soothsayer. He spoke several languages- Hebrew, Greek, (?) Latin, French, German, and Dutch." He was then about fifty years of age. His father and sister were living a few days' journey inland, and he had a brother who was a slave at Surinam. Amo afterwards left Axim, and removed to St. Sebastian, a fort belonging to the Dutch at Chamah, another town on the Gold Coast, after which nothing further is known of him. (Grégoire, De la Littérature des Nègres, p. 198-202.; Life of Gallandat by Winckelman, in Verhandelingen uitgegeeven door het Zeeuwsch Genootschap der Wetenschappen, 1782, ix. 19, 20.) T. W. AMO'LON or AMU'LON, archbishop of Lyon in the ninth century. His name is variously written; he gives it in his own : writings under the Latinised form Amolo, and it is so written in the ancient chronicle of St. Benigne at Dijon: in other ancient writings he is called Amulo or Amulus, and by Trithemius, Hamulus in the Chroniques de St. Denis the name is given, in old French, Emulons. The place and the date of his birth are unknown; he was a deacon of the cathedral of Lyon under Agobard [AGoBARD], whom he calls "his pious father and predecessor," and to whom he repeatedly testifies his obligations; which has given occasion to the supposition that he was brought up under Agobard in the church of Lyon. A few months after the death of Agobard (namely, on 16th Jan. 841) he was appointed his successor. In A. D. 846 he joined with several other archbishops and their suffragans in an admonition to the general assembly of the nobles of France, held at Epernay on the Marne by King Charles le Chauve; but the admonition was slightingly treated by the assembly. As it is recorded that the admonition was on ecclesiastical matters, it is probable that it had reference to the assumption of church lands by laymen; as we find Amolon the same year complaining of such usurpation in respect to the land of his own church of Lyon to the Emperor Lothaire, who by a decree ordered certain places to be restored to that church. This decree appears to have had little effect, as by another decree four years after (A. D. 850) the emperor repeated his order for the restitution of those possessions and of certain others. In the same year Amolon had some dispute with Lothaire, the cause and result of which are not known. He was in great favour with Charles le Chauve; and by his interest at court was enabled to render some services to Pope Leo IV., which that pope has acknowledged in one of his letters. In the latter part of his life Amolon was involved in the controversy about predestination, which had been occasioned by the writings and exertions of the monk Gothescale of Orbais. He was probably led to engage in this controversy by the intervention of linemar, archbishop of Reims, one of the persecutors of Gothescalc. Amolon is supposed to have died A. D. 852. Some modern writers, as Bouquet (in a note to the seventh volume of the Receuil des Historiens, &c.) and Ceillier (Auteurs Sacrés) fix his death on the 31st of March of that year. Baluze says that the time of his death is uncertain. Amolon appears to have enjoyed considerable reputation among his contemporaries and in succeeding ages. Trithemius speaks of him as a diligent student of the Scriptures, skilled in ancient learning, and eminent for his acquaintance with Hebrew as well as Latin. The correctness of this last part of his eulogy has been called in question. The principal writings of Amolon are as follows: Epistola ad Theodboldum :- 1. 66 | 66 Episcopum Lingonensem." In this letter (which is supposed to have been written A.D. 844) he advises Theodbold, bishop of Langres, one of his suffragans, who had requested his advice in the matter, to remove from the church certain relics of doubtful authenticity, by means of which miracles were affirmed to have been performed. This letter was first printed and published at Paris by Nicolas Camusat, A. D. 1633; and is interesting as showing the credulity of the public mind, and as throwing light on some points of the ecclesiastical polity of the age. It was reprinted in La Lande's Supplementa Conciliorum Galliæ," fol. Paris, 1666; and about a century ago a French translation with notes was published. 2. " Epistola ad Gothescalcum." This letter was addressed to Gothescale about A. D. 851 or the beginning of 852, in consequence of some writings professing to be his having been put into Amolon's hands. These writings are not extant; and from the manner in which Amolon replies to them, it has been inferred that they contained opinions different from those which are embodied in other writings of Gothescalc. Mauguin and the authors of the "Histoire Littéraire de la France" suspect that the supposed writings of the unfortunate monk, who was then in prison, were forged by his persecutor Hincmar, in order to procure the sanction of Amolon to the condemnation of Gothescale; but Dupin contends that there is no ground for supposing forgery. This epistle to Gothescalc was first published by the Jesuit Sirmond, in a small 8vo. volume, with some other tracts by divers authors, Paris, 1649. In the ancient manuscript which Sirmond used were two treatises on predestination, foreknowledge, grace, and free will, and a selection of passages on the same subject from the writings of St. Augustin. All these Sirmond printed in the same volume as the letter, and appears to have thought that they were the works of Amolon, though he did not positively affirm that they were. The first treatise (which in the manuscript preceded Amolon's letter) has been ascertained to be a work of Florus, a deacon of Lyon, contemporary with Amolon; the second treatise, which has no title, and is apparently a fragment, followed the letter in the manuscript, and may probably, as well as the selections from St. Augustin, be ascribed to Amolon, though there is no clear proof that they are his. All the above works of Amolon were published by Baluze in his edition of the works of St. Agobard (2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1666), and in the 14th vol. of the Maxima Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum," 27 vols. fol. Lyon, 1677, and (with the exception of the selection from St. Augustin) in the 13th vol. of Galland's "Bibliotheca Patrum," Venice, 1779. The letter to Gothescale and the second of the treatises which follow it were reprinted by member of the Académie des Sciences, and the accounts of his researches are contained in several papers which were read at the sittings of that learned body and printed in its " Mémoires." The only work which he published independently is entitled "Remarques et Expériences physiques sur la Construction d'une nouvelle Clepsydre, sur les Baromètres, Thermomètres, et Hygromètres." Paris, 1695. Mauguin in his "Vindicia Predestinationis," | vourite pursuit. In 1699 he was elected a 2 tom. 4to. Paris, 1650. A translation of the letter to Gothescale was published at Paris the same year. 3. "Contra Judæos Liber." This is mentioned by Trithemius, who quotes the first two words, "Detestanda Judæorum," by which it is identified with a treatise published at Dijon (A. D. 1656) by Chifflet, who ascribed it to Raban or Rabanus Maurus, archbishop of Mayence in the time of Amolon. (Gallia Christiana, tom. iv.; Trithemius, De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis; Fabricius, Bibliotheca Medic et Infimæ Latinitatis; Cave, Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Historia Literaria; Histoire Littéraire de la France, tome v.; Ceillier, Auteurs Sacrés, tome xviii.; Dupin, Nouvelle Bibliothèque Auteurs Ecclésiastiques; Sirmond and Baluze, in their editions of Amolon's writings.) Amontons was the first who expressly stated that, with a given increase of temperature, air will dilate itself the more as it is more dense; and he determined by experiments its expansive force when at the temperdesature of boiling water, in terms of the mean pressure of the atmosphere. He assumes that air is elastic in consequence of the heat which it contains, and he infers that it can never cease to be compressible by the action of any external force. He has also the merit of being the first who made a series of experiments on the strength of men and animals, and on the friction of materials; and from those of the first kind he determined the weights which could be supported or moved, the distances to which burthens could be conveyed, and the times during which certain exertions could be continued. From the others he was led to infer that when bodies are moved on planes, the friction is quite independent of the magnitude of the surface in contact; and he investigated formulæ for expressing its amount in machines. Experiments on friction have been greatly multiplied since that time, and it is now ascertained that the above principle is not correct the law of friction, with respect to the surface in contact, has not yet however been accurately determined. J. C. M. AMOME'TUS ('Auάunтos), a Greek author who wrote a work on the Asiatic nation called Attaci, which is now lost. Another work of Amometus was an account of a journey up the Nile from Memphis as far as the so-called well of Isis (èk Méμpews ávátλovs). Of this work a few interesting fragments are extant. Eudocia and the scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius mention a writer of the name of Atrometus, for which some critics have proposed to read Amometus. (Pliny, Hist. Nat. vi. 20.; Antigonus Carystius, Hist. Mirabil. p. 164.; Elian, Hist. Animal. xvii. 6.; Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, iii. 1178.) L. S. AMONTONS, GUILLAUME, an ingenious experimental philosopher of France, who, at a time when physical science was scarcely beyond its infancy, and when the instruments employed in its service had been recently invented, distinguished himself by his pneumatical and mechanical experiments, and by the improvements which he made in the means of determining the density, temperature, and humidity of the atmosphere. He was born on the 31st of August, 1663, at Paris; and his father, previously to going to reside in that city, had followed the profession of an advocate in Normandy. At an early age, in consequence of a severe illness, he became nearly deaf; and thus he was, in some measure, rendered incapable of engaging in the usual occupations or of joining in the amusements of society. He appears to have had from nature a decided taste for philosophical inquiries, but it is probable that his misfortune, in part, disposed him to apply to scientific studies as a relief from the melancholy which a sense of his isolation produced his attention to such studies became unremitting, and he felt so strongly the interest which they inspired, that he declined, it is said, the use of the means which were prescribed for recovering the sense of hearing, lest a more extensive intercourse with the world should divert him from his fa Amontons was the inventor of a barometer, consisting of a column of mercury in a conical tube of glass, which was suspended in a vertical position, the upper or smaller end being closed, and the lower end open: the mercury was supported by the resistance of the atmosphere, which, varying in density, acted upwards with more or less force on the base of the column, and thus caused the whole to ascend or descend in the tube. He also contrived a barometer consisting of two vertical columns of mercury, between which was a column of air, the whole being contained in a bent tube of glass. An instrument of this kind, slightly modified, is still occasionally constructed; but its only advantage is, that its length is equal to about half of that of an ordinary barometer. In the "Mémoires" of the Academy for 1705 there is a paper by Amontons on the depression of columns of mercury contained in glass tubes which have been cleaned with spirits of wine. This "thermomètre universel" was a column of mercury about thirty inches (English) long, in a tube which was |