that route, the English government have despatched many expeditions. The most memorable was that sent in A.D. 1845 under Sir John Franklin, and which never returned: it was only ascertained many years afterwards that the ships were lost in the ice and that Sir John Franklin and the whole of his men perished by frost and starvation.

47. ZOOLOGICAL DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD. The six continents, as we have defined them above, have natural geographical boundaries (except as to the boundary between Europe and Asia), and hence most geographers use these divisions. But by those who study the races of men and animals, very different divisions are used. All the Arctic Regions of the world and the part of the North Temperate Zone adjacent thereto present great similarity in their animals; hence this area is said to form one natural zoological province. There is easy communication between the Old and New World across Behring's straits and the same animals have thus been able to spread all over the Arctic Region. But animals cannot cross easily from Australia to South Africa or to South America. Hence we find that Australia is by itself a natural Zoological Province, that is to say, most of the animals found there are found nowhere else in the world. So Africa, south of the great desert, forms a Zoological Province. But in South America the animals are not prevented spreading north by either a desert or an ocean and all America from the Southern United States to Cape Horn may be reckoned as one large Zoological Province. We may divide the globe into six Primary Zoological Provinces as follows:

(1) The Arctic; extending from the North Pole to 45° N.L.

(2) The American; extending from Cape Horn to 45° N.L. in America.

(3) The African; extending from the Cape of Good Hope to 25° N.L. in Africa and Arabia.

(4) The Mediterranean; extending round the Mediterranean from 25° N.L. to 45° N.L. and east as far as the Indus.

(5) The Indo-Chinese; including India, China, Malaya. (6) The Australian; including Australia and New Guinea. 48. RACES OF MEN. We may on the same system divide the globe according to the chief divisions of the human race which occupy it. These are

(1) The Caucasian race; who occupy Europe, the north of Africa, and the south-west of Asia as far as India.

(2) The Mongolian race; who have a yellow skin, little hair on their face, and slanting eyes: they extend over Northern and Central Asia, over Eastern Asia including China, and into Arctic America..

(3) The American race; who have a copper-coloured skin, little hair on their face, and a full eye; and extend over all America except the extreme north. 'They are perhaps a branch of the Mongolian race.

(4) The Negro race; who have a dark skin and woolly hair; and extend throughout Tropical Africa.

(5) The Malayan race; who have a brown skin, very coarse straight black hair, and a large mouth. They occupy south east Asia, Malaya, Madagascar, and part of the Pacific Islands.

(6) The Australian race; who have a dark skin, slight lank bodies, and bushy heads of hair, whence they are sometimes described as mop-headed. They occupy Australia and many islands adjacent. These divisions, like the chief Zoological Provinces, are only natural in a very general way, and subject to many exceptions. Moreover, in modern times, the English have colonized Australia and North America, and many negroes have been carried into America. Migrations of this kind complicate and confuse divisions of the globe founded on the races of men.

The different

49. CONTINENTAL COAST-LINES. continents are penetrated by seas in very different degrees. Thus Africa is a solid mass; while Europe is penetrated on every side but the east by seas, which gives her a much greater extent of coast line in proportion to her area than Africa possesses. No part of Europe is very remote from a port; trade has thus been facilitated, and the population of

In Africa, on the

all parts brought into communication. other hand, there is little trade and vast tracts of its interior have never been visited by any civilised traveller. Geographers have inferred that the progress made by Europe has been due in some measure to the advantage it possesses in a very long coast line. There may be some truth in this; for not only do we see in the other continents that the least advanced countries are those that are furthest from the sea, but in Europe itself we notice that the most backward part is that which is farthest from the sea, viz., the interior of Russia. But the theory must not be pushed too far; for, if commerce, enterprise, and civilization depended largely on extent of coast-line, the south-east of Asia with its islands should be one of the most advanced portions of the globe.

Some por

50. UNKNOWN PARTS OF THE WORLD. tions of the world remain still unknown; the Arctic (and still more the Antarctic) zone is closed against us by the cold; a considerable area in Asia, to the north-east of India, is closed against travellers by savage inhabitants; as is also a larger area in the centre of Africa. But our travellers are now every year diminishing these unknown areas.

WORLD. (Abstract.)

CONTINENTS. Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, North America, South America.

OCEANS. Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Great Southern, Arctic.

SEAS. Mediterranean, Baltic, Red, Java, Chinese, Caribbean.

GULFS. Mexico, Guinea, Persian, Lyons (the Lion).

BAYS. Bengal, Biscay, Hudson's.

STRAITS. Gibraltar, Babelmandeb, Singapore, Behring's, Dardanelles.

CAPES. Good Hope, Horn, North, Comorin.

ISLANDS. Papua (or New Guinea), Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Madagascar, Britain, Cuba, New Zealand, Niphon. ARCHIPELAGOS. Malay, Levant, West Indian, Japan.

MOUNTAIN-RANGES. Himalaya, Andes, Rocky, Alps. VOLCANOS. One row in Malaya; another row in the

Andes.

RIVERS. Amazon, Mississippi, Nile, Ganges, Euphrates. WATERFALLS. Niagara, Victoria,

LAKES. Superior, Victoria-Nyanza, Geneva.

SALT-LAKES. Caspian Sea, Aral Sea, Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake.

PENINSULAS. Italian, Spanish, Scandinavian, Indian, Malay, Californian.

ISTHMUSES. Suez, Panama.

RACES OF MEN. Caucasian, Mongolian, American, Negro, Malay, Australian.

TOWNS (with their Populations). London (3,250,000); Paris (1,800,000); Berlin (850,000); Vienna (825,000); Constantinople (700,000); Bombay (650,000); Pekin (1,500,000); Canton (1,900,000); Han-kow and Han-yang (2,000,000); Yeddo (1,700,000); New York (1,500,000).

51. BOUNDARIES: On the South-the Mediteranean, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus: on the West-the Atlantic on the North-the Arctic Ocean on the East-the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, and the Caspian.

The Eastern Boundary is artificial; the country is similar on both banks of the Ural River. Some geographers make the boundary of Europe at this point to be the Volga.

52. ATTACHED ISLANDS. Britain and Ireland, Iceland. In the Mediterranean, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Candia, Majorca. In the Baltic, Zealand. In the Arctic Ocean is Spitzbergen, uninhabitable, celebrated for its extreme cold.

53. CLIMATE. Nearly one-third of Europe lies north of the parallel 57° 30′ N.L. In this area little wheat is grown, the population is scanty, and the territory is of small political importance. Thus Sweden and Norway appear large countries on the map, much larger than England or France;

but we hear little of them because the larger northern portion is nearly uninhabited. The principal part of the population is congregated in the south of Sweden, where wheat will ripen. As regards Russia, the climate is colder in the east of Europe than in the west under the same latitude : Moscow is much colder than Edinburgh. Hardly half of Russia is a wheat-bearing country; and in the part that does not bear wheat the population is very small. This non-wheat-bearing region we may call the Sub-Arctic zone with a Sub-Arctic climate. The three peninsulas of South Europe (viz. Spain and Portugal, Italy, Turkey and Greece), together with the south of France, may be classed as in the Warm-Temperate zone; they lie south of the parallel 45° N.L. In many parts of this area, rice, oranges, and figs may be grown.

The rest of Europe, viz. from 45° N.L. to 57° 30' N.L., we may call Cool-Temperate; the climate of the south of England will represent it to us. Wheat flourishes; grapes and figs will ripen in some places; rice cannot possibly be grown.

54. MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS. A mountainous band of country extends completely across Europe from west to east, from the north of Spain to the Caucasus. North of this band lies the great plain of Northern Europe; south of it, the three peninsulas of warm-temperate climate.

To trace the central band of mountains more particularly, we begin with the Pyrenees in the west; the central group in Switzerland are the Alps, which bifurcate eastwards into the Carpathians and the Balkan: these two branches may be supposed to reunite eastwards in the Crimea and Caucasus.

The Great Northern plain extends over the whole of Russia, Poland, the south-east of Sweden, North Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, the east of England, and the whole of France.

The Alps reach 15,784 feet high, and the central range is generally more than 8,000 feet high. The Pyrenees reach 11,168 feet, the Caucasus 18,493 feet, above sea-level. The

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