knowledge in general, and, in particular, for Philosophic Knowledge; but by the observation of Moral Consciousness the disputants had come to the conclusion that a certain knowledge is necessary; and had drawn broader distinctions between what is subjective and what is objective, in our cognitions. The four great philosophical factions continued to maintain at Athens their several schools, close by each other, without mutually interrupting their discussions; and prosecuted, but with less vivacity than of old, their ancient disputes. CHAPTER THIRD. OF PHILOSOPHY AMONG THE ROMANS, AND THE NEW Propagation and Downfall of Grecian Philosophy. 171. SCEPTICISM, after it had lost much of its influence in the Academy, re-appeared in the schools of Medicine: where it called forth, from the spirit of contradiction, new dogmatical researches founded on the intuition of the Absolute: inquiries which were fostered by the increased intercourse which had taken place between the Orientals and the Greeks, as well as by some other great external events, such as the conquests of Alexander and the Romans, and, subsequently, the growth of Christianity. Combined with other causes, these events contained the principle of the decline and fall of Grecian philosophy, at the same time that they laid open new paths to the spirit of philosophic research. 172. Alexander1 had annihilated the republican liberty of Greece, and subdued to the Grecian arms, together with Egypt, the whole of Asia, as far as the Indus: thus opening way for an active commerce between the East and the the 1 Died 323 B.C. West, which contributed to enlarge the sphere of Grecian art and science. Alexandria, that mighty commercial city which gradually succeeded to the importance of fallen Athens, strengthened these distant relations, and helped to convert them to the interests of science. The Ptolemies, the successors of Alexander in Egypt, aided the cause of knowledge by founding their famous Library and Museum; although original inquiry appears to have been damped by this vast accumulation of scientific resources, and the facility with which they were accessible. A progressive decline became observable in the spirit of Philosophy, which was gradually directed to humbler objects, of a more pedantic character; such as Commentaries, Comparisons, Miscellanies, Compilations, etc. etc. Reference may be made to: CHR. GOTTL. HEYNE, De Genio Seculi Ptolemæorum. Opusc. Acad., vol I, p. 76. CHR. DAN. BECK, Specimen Historia Bibliothecarum Alexandrinarum, Lips. 1779, 4to. § 173. (See the Works mentioned § 38.) The Romans, a nation of warriors and conquerors, with whom the interests of their Republic outweighed all others, became acquainted with Grecian philosophy, particularly with the Peripatetic, Academic, and Stoic doctrines, only after the conquest of Greece; and more especially through the intervention of three philosophers whom the Athenians deputed to Rome.2 In spite of determined judices and reiterated denunciations, one of these doctrines (that of the Academy), daily gained disciples there; especially when Lucullus and Sylla had enriched the Capitol with conquered libraries. The latter, after the capture of Athens, 84 B.C., sent thither the collection of Apellicon, which was particularly rich in the works of Aristotle. 1 Third century B.C. 2 155 B.C. pre LEVESOW, De Carneade, Diogene, et Critolao, et de causis neglecti studii Philosophiæ apud Antiquiores Romanos, Stettin. 1795. DAN BOETHII Digest. de Philosophiæ nomine apud Veteres Romanos inviso, Upsal. 1790, 4to. 3 A. GELL. N. A. XV, 11. The Romans almost always looked upon Philosophy as a mean to attain some personal or political end: betraying by that very circumstance their want of a genuine philosophic spirit. Nevertheless they eventually became the depositaries of Grecian philosophy. 174. Christianity, the religion of "the pure in heart," which prescribed a disinterested love of our neighbours, and proclaimed to all mankind, independently of any scientific form, the union of God with man, afforded as it were a fresh text, of the highest interest, which directed men to Reason as well as Revelation. It has exercised a various influence over the progress of Philosophical Reason, by the matter of its doctrines, as well as by their form. 175. The spirit of research of Grecian Philosophy, once so original and independent, was exhausted. Reason had tried every path, every direction then open to her, without being able to satisfy herself; for she had not penetrated to the fundamental problem, that of the nature of Reason, and consequently had continued an enigma to herself. The different philosophic systems had viewed truth only in one of its aspects, and consequently were involved in errors. The want of philosophical method had rendered the disentanglement of these errors the more difficult; and a reconciliation or adjustment had become impossible between the different sects, whose disputes, while they prevented the understanding from sinking into lethargy, had also the effect of detracting from the pure and disinterested love of Truth. Consequently, the efforts of science were not so much directed to the investigation of the first principles of knowledge, as to maintain, consolidate, illustrate, and apply conclusions which had been already drawn. 176. The political, religious, and moral condition of the Roman Empire during the first centuries after the Christian era, were not such as to animate and sustain a spirit of philosophical research. Greece had lost her political existence; Rome her republican constitution. Beginning with the capital, luxury, egotism, and indolence had spread their reign to the remotest provinces. The characteristic features of the period were a neglect of the popular religion, a preference for foreign rites, (of which an incongruous medley was tolerated), a widely prevalent superstition, a disdain of what was natural, a mania for what was strange and extraordinary, a curious prying into the (pretended) occult arts, with an extinction of all sentiments truly great and noble. Such are the characteristics given by the Epicurean Lucian of Samosata (2nd cent. A.C.) in a Satire, which exposes with the most poignant ridicule the false philosophy of his age. (Cf. § 181.) See + CHPH. MEINERS, History of the Decline of Morals under the Roman Government, Leips. 1782, 8vo. 177. Consequently the efforts of the Reason were directed in various ways, and tended 1st. To maintain the Schools and systems already existing; not without considerable modifications. 2ndly. To revive superannuated doctrines, such as those of the Pythagorean and Orphic philosophies. 3dly. To combine by Interpretation, Syncretism, or Eclecticism, the various systems, especially those of Plato and Aristotle; and to trace them all back to the ancient Dogmata of Pythagoras, the pretended Orpheus, Zoroaster, and Hermes.1 4thly To combine in one the spirit of Oriental and Occidental philosophy. 178. Nevertheless, Philosophy made at least some apparent progress in extension, and, at least apparently, in intensity. In extension, because the Romans and the Jews by this time had made themselves acquainted with the philosophical dogmas of the Greeks, and had produced some philosophical works sufficiently original. Nor does this progress of philosophy appear to have been merely external; inasmuch as Scepticism assumed a more intense character, and gave occasion for a fresh dogmatical system in the school of the Platonists. By imagining a new source of knowledge, the intuition of the Absolute; by labouring to combine the old and the new theories of the East and the West, they endeavoured to provide a broader basis for Dogmatic philosophy, to prop up the established religion, and to oppose a barrier to the rapid progress of Christianity; Syncretism professes to combine the elements of different systems: Eclecticism to extract from all what is consistent with a particular theory.-ED. 1 Cf. L. E. OTTO BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, De Librorum Hermeticorum origine atque indole, Jenæ, 1827, 4to. but eventually lost themselves in the region of Metaphysical dreams. On the other hand, the Doctors of the Catholic faith, who at one time had rejected and contemned the philosophy of the Greeks, ended by adopting it, at least in part, in order to complete and fortify their religious system. The invasions of the barbarous tribes, and the disunion of the Eastern and Western empires, brought on at last an almost utter extinction of philosophical research. Introduction and Cultivation of Grecian Philosophy 179. Unquestionably the national character of the Romans, more disposed for action than speculation, did not encourage philosophy to spring up among them unassisted.1 The revolutions also in their government, the loss of their republican constitution, the tyranny of the greater part of their emperors, and the general and continually increasing corruption, were little favourable to the development of a truly philosophical spirit, yet from time to time they manifested a degree of interest in such researches, which they looked upon as indispensable to a cultivated mind, and as serviceable for certain civil offices. Agreeably to their native character and habits, they showed more predilection for the doctrines of the Porch or of Epicurus, than those of Plato and Aristotle, which were of a more speculative character. The Romans thus applied themselves to Grecian philosophy; successfully transferred into their own language some of its treatises; enriched, by the application of them, their jurisprudence and policy, but did not advance a step by any original discovery of their own. Consequently, we can distinguish only a small number of Latins who have deserved a page in the history of philosophy. We shall proceed to mention the principal of those among them, who, whether Romans or foreigners, cultivated and diffused the philosophy of the Greeks, with some partial modifications in their manner of teaching it. 1 K. F. RENNER, De Impedimentis quæ apud Vett. Romanos Philosophiæ negaverint successum, Hal. 1825. See also the authors mentioned at the head of § 24, b. |