at Rotterdam (1681); became embroiled in many controversies, and died in a fortunate state of independence, A.D. 1706. He was a firm and sincere friend of Truth, and succeeded in combating the prejudices, the errors, the follies, and especially the superstitions of intolerance with the arms of reasoning, of erudition, and of a lively wit. At first he embraced the Cartesian system, but having compared it with others, and accustomed himself to Sceptical discussions, he ceased to confide even in the possibility of a positive rational knowledge, and brought himself to believe That Reason was clear-sighted enough to detect error, but not sufficiently so, without external aid, to attain to Truth. In short, that without a Revelation from above she only leads astray. With such views he applied himself constantly to detect the weak sides, contradictions, and imperfections of every sect and system, which nevertheless had had their supporters: particularly insisting on the difficulties which belong to the questions of the attributes of the Deity,-Creation-Providence-Evil, Moral and PhysicalImmateriality-Free-will, and the reality of our knowledge of an external world. At the same time that he opposed Reason to Revelation, and regarded the latter as a beacon in the discussion of such subjects, he did not fail to point out, on the other hand, whatever, in the Christian doctrine and theological morals, is at variance with Reason, and force men thereby to inquiries still more profound. In his discussions on Providence carried on with Jean Le Clerc1 346), with Isaac Jacquelot (§ 340), and with Leibnitz, on

LE CLERC wrote in answer to Bayle: Défense de la Providence contre les Manichéens; dont les Raisons ont été proposées par M. Bayle dans son Dictionnaire Critique (dans le t. I, des Parrhasiana, p. 303). This work is composed on the principles of Origen. Le Clerc also undertook the defence of Cudworth's System, especially of his hypothesis of Plastic Natures: the discussion produced a multitude of writings on both sides, and finally led Le Clerc to accuse Bayle of Atheism.

JACQUELOT attacked the theological opinions of Bayle in his work, Conformité de la Foi avec la Raison, ou Défense de la Religion contre les principales Difficultés répandues dans la Dictionnaire Historique et Critique de M. Bayle, Amst. 1705, 8vo. Bayle replied to him in his Réponses aux Questions d'un Provincial. Jacquelot then published an Examen de la Théologie de M. Bayle; and the latter rejoined by, Entretiens de Maxime et de Thémiste, ou Réponse à l'Examen de

Z

the origin of Evil (§ 359), and others, he always preserved the calmness and dignity of a philosopher. His works have greatly contributed to the dissemination of knowledge, and on the other hand also, to the propagation of an untenable spirit of free-thinking. Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens' also appeared as a Sceptic of a narrow spirit. The Sceptical School was attacked, but not overcome, by P. de Villemandy, J. P. de Crouzaz,3 and Formey.*

PROGRESS OF PHILOSOPHY IN GERMANY.

Puffendorf.

354. About the middle of the seventeenth century Philosophy acquired in Germany renewed energies, though these were at first confined to a limited sphere. Samuel Fr. Baron von Puffendorf reduced Natural Law to the forms of a science. He was born 1632, at Flöke, near Chemnitz; and having studied the Cartesian philosophy at Jena, became in 1661 professor of the Law of Nature and Nations at Heidelberg, afterwards at Lund, and died historiographer of the House of Brandenburg, at Berlin, 1694. He attempted to reconcile the opinions of Hobbes and Grotius, and discussed Natural Law as a separate question, independent of the obligations of Revealed Religion or Positive Civil Law. The philosophers of the Theological school became in consequence, his enemies; particularly Valent Alberti and Joachim Zentgrave.

Puffendorf first gave a currency to the principle of Sociability, which Grotius had started; and maintained that

la Théologie de M. Bayle, par M. Jacquelot. This work appeared in Rotterdam in 1707, after the death of the author. Jacquelot replied to it by another.

1 Chamberlain of Frederick the Great; died at Aix, his native town, 1770. His principal works are: Histoire de l'Esprit humain, 14 vols. 12mo. (best edition), Berlin, 1765; Lettres Cabalistiques, 7 vols. 12mo. La Haye, 1769; Lettres Juives, 6 vols. 8vo. La Haye, 1738. He translated Julian, Ocellus Lucanus, Timæus Locrus, &c.

2 PETRI DE VILLEMANDY, Scepticismus Debellatus, seu Humanæ Cognationis Ratio ab imis radicibus explicata, etc. Lugd. Bat. 1697, 4to. Sce § 139.

3 See the works mentioned § 124,

4 Ibid.

1

in virtue of this motive, which is allied to Self-love, man desires the society and co-operation of his fellow-men; but that, at the same time, through the corruption of his nature, (the state of Nature described by Hobbes), and in consequence of the multiplicity of his desires, and the impossibility of easily satisfying them, as well as the instability of his natural disposition, he is no less inclined to do injury to others, and is furnished with the means of doing so in his address and cunning. From these considerations he infers, on the principle of Self-love, the first law of society, that we should each individually labour to maintain the social compact, which derives its authority direct from God, as the Creator of mankind. From this origin Puffendorf deduces the laws of Morality and Jurisdiction. He does not, indeed, discriminate between Natural and Moral Right, and frequently recurs to Christianity for positive precepts; yet he may be said to have laid the foundations of an Universal philosophy of practice. The multifarious disputes in which he was engaged, particularly with Alberti (§ 336), were of little service to the cause of philosophy. He has, perhaps, been as much encumbered by his commentators as his adversaries.

SAM. PUFFENDORF, Elementa Jurisprudentiæ Universalis, Hag. Com. 1660; Jen. 8vo.

De Jure Naturæ et Gentium libb. VIII, Lund. 1672; Francof. 1684, 4to.; cum Notis HERTII, BARBEYRACI, et MASCOVII, Francof. et Lips. 1744, 1749, 2 vols. 4to., and other editions. Translated into English by KENNET, folio, 1729, and 1749. De Officio Hominis et Civis libb. II, Lund. 1673, 8vo. and other editions. _Cum Notis Variorum, Ludg. Bat. 1769, 2 vols. 8vo. Eris Scandica, Francof. 1686. On the Natural Law of Puffendorf, see Leibnitz. (Cf. § 360, note.)

I. Leibnitz.

FONTENELLE, Eloge de M. de Leibnitz, dans l'Histoire de l'Acad. Roy. des Sciences de Paris, 1716. The biography it contains was founded on a Memoir communicated by J. G. VON ECCARD, which has been published by VON MURR, in the Journal of the History of the Arts, etc., part VII, Nürnb. 1779.

BAILLY, Eloge de M. de Leibnitz, qui a remporté le Prix de l'Aca démie de Berlin, 1769, 4to.

Leben und Verzeichniss der Schriften, des Herrn v. Leibnitz, in LUDOVICI'S Ausführlichem Entwurf einer vollständigen Historie der Leibnitz'schen Philosophie, im ersten Bande, Leipz. 1737, 8vo.

LAMPRECHT, Leben des Herrn v. Leibnitz, Berlin, 1749, 8vo. Geschichte des Herrn von Leibnitz, aus den Franz. des RITTER V. JANCOURT, Leipz. 1757, 8vo.

A. G. KASTNER's Lobschrift auf Leibnitz, Altona, 1769, 4to.

MICH. HISSMANN, Versuch über das Leben des Freiherrn von Leibnitz, Münster, 1783, 8vo.

A Life of Leibnitz, by REHBERG, is to be found in the + Hanoverian Magazine, 1787, year xxv; and another among the † Lives and Characters of distinguished Germans, by KLEIN, 1 vol.; as well as a third in the German Pantheon, by EBERHARD.

GUHRAUER, Gottfried Wilhelm Freiherr von Leibnitz: eine Biographie, (1842-1846).

355. The comprehensive genius of Gottfried William Leibnitz embraced the whole circle of philosophy, and imparted to it, in Germany at least, a new and powerful impulse. All that can interest or exercise the understanding was attempted by his great and original mind, more especially in Mathematics and Philosophy. He was ignorant of no one branch of learning, and in all he has shown the fertility of his mind by the discoveries he suggested or attempted. He was the founder of a school in Germany, which distinguished itself for the fundamental nature of the principles it embraced, and the systematic manner in which these were developed a school which effected the final overthrow of the Scholastic system, and extended its beneficial influence over the whole range of the sciences. Leibnitz, by his example and his exertions, laid the foundations of this great revolution, by combining the philosophical systems which had prevailed up to his time-by his welltrained and original spirit-by his extraordinary learningthe liberality of his mind, and that spirit of toleration which led him always to discover some favourable point of view in what he criticised-something, even in the most despised and neglected systems, which might suggest matter for research. To this must be added his sense of harmony, and the infinitude of bright ideas, hints, and conjectures, which were perpetually, as it were, scintillating from his brilliant mind, though he left to others the task of collecting and combining them.

He was born June 21, 1646, at Leipsic, where his father was professor of moral philosophy, and studied the same

science under J. Thomasius (born 1622, died 1684), applying himself at the same time to the Mathematics' and the study of Natural Law; read the Classics in the original tongues, particularly Plato and Aristotle, whose doctrines he endeavoured at an early age to combine. The cultivation of his mind was advanced, and the versatility and address of his natural parts promoted, by immense reading and a multifarious correspondence-by his early independence of mind-by his travels, particularly to Paris and Londonand by his acquaintance with the most distinguished statesmen and princes, and most illustrious sages of his time. He died, November 14, 1716, at Hanover, of which state he was a privy-councillor and keeper of the library; scarcely less honoured after his death than during his life, as is testified, among other things, by a monument recently erected to him.

§ 356.

Works: His Dissert. de Principio Individuationis. Lips. 1664. Specimen Quæstionum Philosophicarum ex Jure collectarum, ibid. eod. Tract de Arte Combinatoria, cui subnexa est Demonstratio Existentiæ Dei ad Mathematicam certitudinem exacta, Lips. 1666; Fref. 1694. The first Philosophical Treatises of Leibnitz are to be found in the Acta Eruditorum, from 1684; and in the Journal des Savans, from 1691.

GOTTFR. W. LEIBNITII Opera, studio LUD. DUTENS, Genev. 1768, 6 vols. 4to. Opera Philosophica, ed. ERDMANN, roy. 8vo. Berol. 1840. German works, ed. by GUHRAUER, 8vo. Berl. 1838, et seq. Euvres Philosophiques, par M. RUD. ERICH RASPE et M. KASTNER, Amsterd. 1765, 4to. The German edition contains Remarks and Additions, by J. H. F. ULRICH, Halle, 1778-1780, 2 vols. 8vo.

A Collection of Papers which passed between the late learned M. LEIBNITZ and Dr. Clarke, in the years 1715 and 1716, relating to the Principles of Natural Philosophy and Religion; London, 1717, 8vo.

Leibnitii Otium Hanoveranum, sive Miscellanea G. W. Leibnitii, ed. JOACH. FS. FELLER, Lips. 1718, 8vo. ; et, Monumenta varia inedita, Lips. 1724, 4to. Epistolæ ad Diversos, ed. CHR. KORTHOLD, Lips. 1734, 1742, 4 vols. 8vo.

Commercium Epistolicum Leibnitianum, ed. Jo. DAN. GRUBER, Hanov. et Götting. 1745, 2 vols. 4to.

Under Erh. Weigel, at Jena, (who died 1690).