lyre of Apollo. The centre, or central fire (the sun), in other words, the seat of Jupiter, Alòs oikos pvlákn, is the most perfect object in nature, the principle of heat, and consequently of life; penetrating and vivifying all things. According to the same system, the stars also are divinities; and even men, nay, the inferior animals, have a sort of consanguinity with the Divine Being. They considered the dæmones as a race intermediate between gods and men, and attributed to them a considerable agency in dreams and divination: always, however, assigning as ultimate causes of all things, destiny and the deity. They ennobled their notion of the deity by the attribution of certain moral qualities, such as truth and beneficence.1

93. Doctrine of the Soul. The soul also is a number, and an emanation from the central fire, resembling the constellations to which it is allied by its immortality and its constant activity; capable of combining with any body, and compelled by destiny to pass successively through several. This theory of the metempsychosis, borrowed (it is probable) from the Egyptians,3 Pythagoras appears to have combined with the doctrine of moral Retribution. It is to the Pythagoreans we are indebted for the first attempt, however rude, at an analysis of the operations and faculties of the mind. The Reason and Understanding (voûs and Opéves), they placed in the brain; the appetites and the will (Ovuós) in the heart.1

94. The doctrine of Pythagoras embraced also the quesGloborum, et de verâ indole Astronomia Philolaicæ, Heidelberg. 1810, 4to.

1 PLATO Phædon. p. 139, et HEINDORF, ad h. 1. PLUTARCH. De Plac. Philos. I, 3, 7; II, 4. DIOG. VIII, 27, 21. JAMBLICH. LXXXVI, 137, sqq. PORPHYR. Vitâ Pythag. § 41. ELIAN. Var. H. XII, 59. STOB. Ecl. Phys. p. 206.

CONR. DIETR. KOCH, Diss. Unum Theol. Pythagor. Compendium, Helmst. 1710. MICH. MOURGUES, Plan Théologique du Pythagorisme et des autres Sectes, Toulouse, 1712, 2 vols. 8vo.

2 DIOG. LAERT. VIII, 28.

3 HERODOT. II, 123. ARIST. De An. I, 3.? PLUT. De Plac. Philos. IV, 7. JAMBLICH. Vit. Pyth., c. 24. DIOG. LAERT. VIII, 14, 28. 30, 31. STOв. Ecl. I, 1044, sqq.

4 CIC. Tusc. Quæst. I, 17. DIOG. VIII, 30. STOв. Ecl. Phys., p. 878.

2

tion of Ethics;1 and the fragments of his which we possess on this subject contain (in symbolical language) many admirable ideas, but of which the principles are not sufficiently developed. Moral good they identified with unity -evil with multiplicity. Virtue is the harmony and unison of the Soul (Aristot. Eth. Nicom. II, 5; cf. I, 4. Diog. Laert. VIII, 33. Clem. Alex. Strom. IV, c. 23), or, in other words, similitude to God, oμoλoɣía #pòs To Oetov. Justice they defined to be ἀριθμὸς ἰσάκις ἴσος; and Right they made to consist in τὸ ἀντιπεπονθός: Friendship was made to consist in community of interests and equality; self-murder was condemned by Pythagoras as a crime against the gods, and the virtue which he especially commended was self-command (kaтáρTVOIS). But the attention of this school was greatly engaged, and its disciples exer

AMBROS. RHODII, Dial. de Transmigratione Animarum Pythagoricâ. Hafn. 1638, 8vo.

PAGANINI GAUDENTII De Pythagorica Animarum Transmigratione, Pis. 1641, 4to.

Essay of Transmigration, in defence of Pythagoras, Lond. 1692. GUIL. IRHOVII De Palengenesiâ veterum, s. Metempsychosi sic dicta Pythagorica, Lib. III, Amst. 1733, 4to.

1 MARC. MAPPI Diss. (Præs. Jac. SCHALLER) de Ethica Pythagoricâ, Argent. 1653; and in the Fragmen. Hist. Philos. of WINDHEIM.

KRISCHE, De societate a Pythagora in urbe Crotoniatanâ conditæ scopo politico, 1830.

CRAMER, De Pythagora, quomodo educaverit atque instituerit.

1833.

MAGN. DAN. OMEISII Ethica Pythagorica, Altd. 1693, 8vo.

FRID. GUIL. EHRENFR. ROST, Super Pythagora Virtutem ad Numeros referente non revocante, Lips. 1803.

FR. BERNII Arcana Moralitatis ex Pythagoræ symbolis collecta, Ferrar. 1669; ed. quartus PAUL Pater. Francf. ad M. 1687

JO. MICH. SONNTAG, Diss. de similitudine nostri cum Deo Pythagorico-Platonico, Jen. 1699, 4to.

FR. BUDDEI, Diss. De κalápoε Pythagorico-Platonica, Hal. 1701, 4to; cf. Analect. Hist. Philos. ejusdem.

CH. AUG. ROTH, De Examine conscientiæ Pythagorico vespertino, Lips. 1708, 4to.

Jo. FRIEDEM. SCHNEIDER, Diss. De vody seu ascensu hominis in Deum Pythagorico, Hal. 1710.

Jo. SCHILTERI, Diss. De Disciplinâ Pythagoricâ, in his Manuductio Philos. Moralis, Jen. 1676, 8vo.

2 ARIST. Eth. Magn. I, 2.

3 ARIST. Eth. Nicom. I, 1; cf. II, 6; V, 5. DIOG. LAERT. VIII, 33.

cised in an anthropological morality, or asceticism, which pervaded all their system.1

95. We are acquainted with but a small portion of the writings of the old Pythagorean sect, and these are merely commentaries on the opinions of their master. The philosophers belonging to it were Aristaus of Croto, the successor and son-in-law of Pythagoras, according to Jamblichus;2 Teleauges and Mnesarchus, sons of Pythagoras; Alemæon of Croto, particularly distinguished as a naturalist and physician; Hippo of Rhegium, and Hippasus of Metapontum ; (these two last were allied to the Ionic school, by their doctrine of a fundamental and elementary principle of nature); Ecphantus of Syracuse, who inclined to the Atomic school; Clinias, the contemporary of Philolaus, and Epicharmus of Cos, the comedian, called also the Megarean and Sicilian, on account of his residence at those places. Nothing can be advanced with certainty_concerning Ocellus the Lucanian, and Timæus of Locri Epizephyrii, and on that account called Timæus the Locrian.** The work attributed to the latter is nothing but an abstract of the Timæus of Plato, and the authenticity of the treatise on the Universe attributed to Ocellus, is even more unquestionably apocryphal. Among the most distinguished Pythagoreans of a later 1 Several symbolical precepts are to be found apud PLUTARCH. De Pueror. Educ. fin.; and DIOG. LAERT. VIII, 17.

2 Vita Pythag.

3 Flourished about 496 B.C.

3

4 Respecting both, consult + MEINERS, Hist. Doctr. de Vero Deo, P. II. p. 312, sqq. The same, in his † History of the Sciences among the Greeks and Romans, vol. I, p. 584. The same, in the Bibl. Philol. of Gött., vol. I, No. I, p. 204; and † TIEDEMANN, Spirit of Speculative Philosophy, vol. I, p. 89.

5 IIεpi Tns Tou Kóσμov võñs, printed in the Opusc. Myth. Phys. et Eth. of THOM. GALE, p. 539, sqq., and published by D'ARGENS, Berlin, 1763, 8vo. translated by BARDILI, in the collection of FULLEBORN, No. IX, § 9. On this work, consult + TENNEMANN, System of the Philosophy of Plato, vol, I. p. 93.

• Περί τῆς τοῦ παντός φύσεως, first published in the Opusc. of TΗ. GALE, p. 99, sqq. The same, by BATTEUX, with the work of TIMÆUS, Par. 1768, 3 vols. 8vo; and also separately, by D'ARGENS, Berlin, 1792, 8vo; by ROTERMUND, Leips. 1784, 8vo; and lastly, by RUDOLPHI. Ocellus Lucanus de Rer. Naturâ, Græcè ; rec., comment. perpet. auxit et vindicare studuit AUG. FRID. WILH. RUDOLPHI, Leips. 1801, 8vo., translated with a Dissertation on the Genius of Ocellus, by BARDILI, ap. FULLEBORN, Fasc. X, § 1—3.

period should be mentioned, Archytas of Tarentum,1 a contemporary of Plato, and Philolaus of Croto, or Tarentum;" who became celebrated for his system of astronomy, and composed the first treatise of his school which was committed to writing, entitled "The Bacchæ, or Inspired Women.""

96. The doctrine of Pythagoras had great influence with the most eminent philosophers of Greece (and, in particular, with Plato) from the excitement, direction, and method it communicated to their speculations. Subsequently, however, it became the fashion to call Pythagorean all that Plato, Aristotle, and others after them, had added to the doctrines of Pythagoras; even opinions which they themselves had started; and to this medley of doctrines of various origin was superadded a mass of superstitions (§ 184).

III. Speculations of the Eleatic School.

Liber de Xenophane, Zenone, Gorgia, Aristoteli vulgo tributus, partim illustratus Commentario a GE. GUST. FULLEBORN, Hal. 1789, 4to. GE. LUD. SPALDINGII Vindicia Philosophorum Megaricorum; subjicitur Commentarius in priorem partem libelli de Xenophane, Zenone, et Gorgia, Hal. 1792, 8vo.

+ J. GOTTFR. WALTHER, The Tombs of the Eleatic Philosopher unclosed, second edition, Magd. et Leips. 1724.

1 See C. G. BARDILI, Epochen, etc., supplement to the first part. The same, Disquisitio de Archyta Tarentino, Nov. Act. Soc. Lat. Jen. vol. I, p. 1. Tentamen de Archytæ Tarentini vita atque operibus a Jos. Navarra conscriptum, Hafn. 1820, 4to. Collection of the pretended Fragments of Archytas, in the History of the Sciences, by MEINERS, vol. I, p. 598.

GRUPPE, Ueber die Fragmente des Archytas und anderen der ältern Pythagoräer, 1840.

2 The contemporary of Socrates.

3 Concerning this philosopher, see the work of AUG. BOECKH, mentioned § 92, note; and The Doctrine of the Pythagorean Philolaus, with the fragment of his work, by the same, Berl. 1812, 8vo.

4 On the Pythagorean Ladies, see IAMBLICHI Vit. Pyth. ed. KUSTER, p. 21. Theano is particularly mentioned as the wife or the daughter of Pythagoras. DIOG. LAERT. VIII, 42, sqq.; Iambl. 1. c.; in the work of GALE. Opusc. Myth. p. 740, sqq.; in the Collect. of J. CHPH. WOLF, Fragmenta Mulierum Græcarum prosaica, p. 224, sqq., we find letters attributed to Theano and other women of this sect. See also FABRICIUS, Bibl. Gr.; + WIELAND, On the Pythagorean Ladies, in his works, vol. XXIV; FRED. SCHLEGEL, Abhandlung über Diotima, fourth vol. of his works, Vienna, 1822, 8vo.

F

JOH. GOTTL. BUHLE, Commentatio de Ortu et Progressu Pantheismi inde a Xenophane primo ejus auctore, usque ad Spinozam, Götting. 1790, 4to., et Commentt. Soc. Gött. vol. X, p. 157.

CHR. AUG. BRANDIS, Commentationum Eleaticarum, p. 1. Xenophanis, Parmenidis, et Melissi doctrina e propriis Philosophorum reliquiis repetita, Alton. 1813, 8vo.

97. The philosophers whom we have hitherto considered, started from experience; and, conformably with the testimony of the senses, assumed as a substratum the multiplicity of changeable things, of which they endeavoured to trace the origin and connection with the eternal. Now, however, a school arose at Elea, in Italy, that ventured to pronounce experience a mere appearance, because they found creation (das Werden) incomprehensible, and that endeavoured to determine the nature of things as the one sole substance, merely from notions of the understanding. According to this view, the one immoveable esse (seyn) is the only true being. This idealistic pantheism' was developed by four remarkable thinkers who, as regards their personal history, are but too little known to us.

Xenophanes.

Fragments of the Poem of Xenophanes Tepi puoɛws, in the Collection of FULLEBORN, NO. VII, § 1; and in BRANDIS Comment. (above); and in Philosophorum Gr. vet. Operum Reliquiæ. (Xenoph. Parmen. Emped.) ed. KARSTEN, 3 vols. 8vo. Brux. 1830-38.

TOB. ROSCHMANNI Diss. Hist. Philos. (præs. FEUERLIN) de Xenophane, Altd. 1729, 4to.

DIET. TIEDEMANN, Xenophanis decreta, Nova Biblioth. Philolog. et Crit. vol. I, fasc. II.

+ FULLEBORN, Xenophanes, Collection, fasc. I, § 3. See the works mentioned in the preceding §.

98. Xenophanes of Colophon was the contemporary of Pythagoras, and, about the year 536, established himself at Elea or Velia, in Magna Græcia. From the principle ex nihilo nihil fit, he concluded that nothing could pass from non-existence to existence. According to him, all things

1 Idealism expresses that system of philosophy which, though admitting differences on minor points, agrees in placing the Absolute in abstract ideas and thought, and in regarding the appearances of the world of sense as only relative. Idealistic Pantheism denotes that system of philosophy which professes to regard this world of ideas and thought as divine. A close approximation may be traced between the Pantheism of Xenophanes and that of Hegel.-ED.