proceed from the five-fold afflictions (kleśas), namely avidya, asmită, răga, dveṣa and abhiniveśa.

We have already noticed what was meant by avidya. It consists generally in ascribing intelligence to buddhi, in thinking it as permanent and leading to happiness. This false knowledge while remaining in this form further manifests itself in the other four forms of asmitā, etc. Asmita means the thinking of worldly objects and our experiences as really belonging to us-the sense of "mine" or "I" to things that really are the qualities or transformations of the guņas. Rāga means the consequent attachment to pleasures and things. Dveṣa means aversion or antipathy to unpleasant things. Abhiniveśa is the desire for life or love of life-the will to be. We proceed to work because we think our experiences to be our own, our body to be our own, our family to be our own, our possessions to be our own; because we are attached to these; because we feel great antipathy against any mischief that might befall them, and also because we love our life and always try to preserve it against any mischief. These all proceed, as is easy to see, from their root avidya, which consists in the false identification of buddhi with purusa. These five, avidyā, asmitā, rāga, dveṣa and abhiniveśa, permeate our buddhi, and lead us to perform karma and to suffer. These together with the performed karmas which lie inherent in the buddhi as a particular mode of it transmigrate with the buddhi from birth to birth, and it is hard to get rid of them'. The karma in the aspect in which it lies in the buddhi as a mode or modification of it is called karmāśaya (the bed of karma for the purusa to lie in). We perform a karma actuated by the vicious tendencies (kleśa) of the buddhi. The karma when thus performed leaves its stain or modification on the buddhi, and it is so ordained according to the teleology of the prakṛti and the removal of obstacles in the course of its evolution in accordance with it by the permanent will of Isvara that each vicious action brings sufferance and a virtuous one pleasure.

The karmas performed in the present life will generally accumulate, and when the time for giving their fruits comes, such a life is ordained for the person, such a body is made ready for him according to the evolution of prakṛti as shall make it possible for him to suffer or enjoy the fruits thereof. The karma of the 1 Vyasabhāṣya and Tattvavaiśāradī, 11. 3–9.

present life thus determines the particular kind of future birth (as this or that animal or man), the period of life (ayuş) and the painful or pleasurable experiences (bhoga) destined for that life. Exceedingly good actions and extremely bad actions often produce their effects in this life. It may also happen that a man has done certain bad actions, for the realization of the fruits of which he requires a dog-life and good actions for the fruits of which he requires a man-life. In such cases the good action may remain in abeyance and the man may suffer the pains of a dog-life first and then be born again as a man to enjoy the fruits of his good actions. But if we can remove ignorance and the other afflictions, all his previous unfulfilled karmas are for ever lost and cannot again be revived. He has of course to suffer the fruits of those karmas which have already ripened. This is the jivanmukti stage, when the sage has attained true knowledge and is yet suffering mundane life in order to experience the karmas that have already ripened (tişthati samskäravaśāt cakrabhramivaddhṛtaśarīraḥ).

Citta.

The word Yoga which was formerly used in Vedic literature in the sense of the restraint of the senses is used by Patanjali in his Yoga sutra in the sense of the partial or full restraint or steadying of the states of citta. Some sort of concentration may be brought about by violent passions, as when fighting against a mortal enemy, or even by an ignorant attachment or instinct. The citta which has the concentration of the former type is called kṣipta (wild) and of the latter type pramūḍha (ignorant). There is another kind of citta, as with all ordinary people, in which concentration is only possible for a time, the mind remaining steady on one thing for a short time leaves that off and clings to

another thing and so on. This is called the vikṣipta (unsteady) i stage of mind (cittabhūmi). As distinguished from these there is an advanced stage of citta in which it can concentrate steadily on an object for a long time. This is the ekāgra (one-pointed) stage There is a still further advanced stage in which the citta processes are absolutely stopped. This happens immediately before mukti, and is called the nirodha (cessation) state of citta. The purpose of 3 Yoga is to achieve the conditions of the last two stages of citta.

The cittas have five processes (vṛtti), (1) pramāņa1 (valid 1 Samkhya holds that both validity and invalidity of any cognition depend upon the cognitive state itself and not on correspondence with external facts or objects (svataḥ prāmāṇyam svataḥ aprāmāṇyam). The contribution of Sāmkhya to the doc

cognitive states such as are generated by perception, inference and scriptural testimony), (2) viparyaya (false knowledge, illusion, etc.), (3) vikalpa (abstraction, construction and different kinds of imagination), (4) nidrā (sleep, is a vacant state of mind, in which tamas tends to predominate), (5) smṛti (memory).

These states of mind (vrtti) comprise our inner experience. When they lead us towards samsara into the course of passions and their satisfactions, they are said to be kliṣṭa (afflicted or leading to affliction); when they lead us towards liberation, they are called akliṣṭa (unafflicted). To whichever side we go, towards samsara or towards mukti, we have to make use of our states of mind; the states which are bad often alternate with good states, and whichever state should tend towards our final good (liberation) must be regarded as good.

This draws attention to that important characteristic of citta, that it sometimes tends towards good (i.e. liberation) and sometimes towards bad (samsāra). It is like a river, as the Vyasabhāṣya says, which flows both ways, towards sin and towards the good. The teleology of prakṛti requires that it should produce in man the samsāra as well as the liberation tendency.

Thus in accordance with it in the midst of many bad thoughts and bad habits there come good moral will and good thoughts, and in the midst of good thoughts and habits come also bad thoughts and vicious tendencies. The will to be good is therefore never lost in man, as it is an innate tendency in him which is as strong as his desire to enjoy pleasures. This point is rather remarkable, for it gives us the key of Yoga ethics and shows that our desire of liberation is not actuated by any hedonistic attraction for happiness or even removal of pain, but by an innate tendency of the mind to follow the path of liberation'. Removal of pains trine of inference is not definitely known. What little Vacaspati says on the subject has been borrowed from Vātsyāyana such as the pūrvavat, seṣavat and sāmānyatodṛṣṭa types of inference, and these may better be consulted in our chapter on Nyaya or in the Tatparyaṭīkā of Vācaspati. Sāmkhya inference was probably from particular to particular on the ground of seven kinds of relations according to which they had seven kinds of inference "mätränimittasamyogivirodhisahacāribhiḥ. Svasvāmibadhyaghātādyaiḥ sāmkhyānām saptadhānumā” (Tätparyaṭīkā, p. 109). Samkhya definition of inference as given by Udyotakara (I. I. V) is “sambandhādekasmāt pratyakṣāccheṣasiddhiranumānam.”

1 Samkhya however makes the absolute and complete destruction of three kinds of sorrows, adhyatmika (generated internally by the illness of the body or the unsatisfied passions of the mind), adhibhautika (generated externally by the injuries inflicted by other men, beasts, etc.) and ādhidaivika (generated by the injuries inflicted by demons and ghosts) the object of all our endeavours (puruṣārtha).

is of course the concomitant effect of following such a course, but still the motive to follow this path is a natural and irresistible tendency of the mind. Man has power (śakti) stored up in his citta, and he has to use it in such a way that this tendency may gradually grow stronger and stronger and ultimately uproot the other. He must succeed in this, since prakṛti wants liberation for her final realization'.

Yoga Purificatory Practices (Parikarma).

The purpose of Yoga meditation is to steady the mind on the gradually advancing stages of thoughts towards liberation, so that vicious tendencies may gradually be more and more weakened and at last disappear altogether. But before the mind can be fit for this lofty meditation, it is necessary that it should be purged of ordinary impurities. Thus the intending yogin should practise absolute non-injury to all living beings (ahimsā), absolute and strict truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), absolute sexual restraint (brahmacarya) and the acceptance of nothing but that which is absolutely necessary (aparigraha). These are collectively called yama Again side by side with these abstinences one must also practise external cleanliness by ablutions and inner cleanliness of the mind, contentment of mind, the habit of bearing all privations of heat and cold, or keeping the body unmoved and remaining silent in speech (tapas), the study of philosophy (svādhyāya) and meditation on Iśvara (Īśvarapraṇidhāna). These are collectively called niyamas. To these are also to be added certain other moral disciplines such as pratipakṣabhāvanā, maitrī, karuņā, muditā and upekṣā. Pratipakṣa-bhāvanā means that whenever a bad thought (e.g. selfish motive) may come one should practise the opposite good thought (selfsacrifice); so that the bad thoughts may not find any scope. Most of our vices are originated by our unfriendly relations with our fellow-beings. To remove these the practice of mere abstinence may not be sufficient, and therefore one should habituate the mind to keep itself in positive good relations with our fellow-beings. The practice of maitri means to think of all beings as friends. If we continually habituate ourselves to think this, we can never be displeased with them. So too one should practise karuṇā or kindly feeling for sufferers, muditā 1 See my "Yoga Psychology," Quest, October, 1921.

or a feeling of happiness for the good of all beings, and upekṣā or a feeling of equanimity and indifference for the vices of others. The last one indicates that the yogin should not take any note of the vices of vicious men.

When the mind becomes disinclined to all worldly pleasures (vairagya) and to all such as are promised in heaven by the performances of Vedic sacrifices, and the mind purged of its dross and made fit for the practice of Yoga meditation, the yogin may attain liberation by a constant practice (abhyāsa) attended with faith, confidence (śraddha), strength of purpose and execution (virya) and wisdom (prajñā) attained at each advance.

The Yoga Meditation.

When the mind has become pure the chances of its being ruffled by external disturbances are greatly reduced. At such a stage the yogin takes a firm posture (āsana) and fixes his mind on any object he chooses. It is, however, preferable that he should fix it on Isvara, for in that case Isvara being pleased removes many of the obstacles in his path, and it becomes easier for e him to attain success. But of course he makes his own choice, and can choose anything he likes for the unifying concentration (samādhi) of his mind. There are four states of this unifying concentration namely vitarka, vicāra, ānanda and asmită. Of these vitarka and vicāra have each two varieties, savitarka, nirvitarka,savicāra,nirvicāra1. When the mind concentrates on objects, remembering their names and qualities, it is called the savitarka stage; when on the five tanmātras with a remembrance of their qualities it is called savicāra, and when it is one with the tanmātras without any notion of their qualities it is called nirvicāra. Higher than these are the ananda and the asmitā states. In the ānanda state the mind concentrates on the buddhi with its functions of the senses causing pleasure. In the asmitā stage buddhi concentrates on pure substance as divested of all modifica.tions. In all these stages there are objects on which the mind consciously concentrates, these are therefore called the samprajñāta (with knowledge of objects) types of samādhi. Next to this comes the last stage of samadhi called the asamprajñāta or nirodha samadhi, in which the mind is without any object. By remaining

1 Vācaspati, however, thinks that ānanda and asmitā have also two other varieties, which is denied by Bhiksu.