such a study can be collected. But from what we now possess it is proved incontestably that it is one of the most wonderful and subtle productions of human wisdom. It is impossible to overestimate the debt that the philosophy, culture and civilization of India owe to it in all her developments for many succeeding centuries.

Early Buddhist Literature.

The Buddhist Pāli Scriptures contain three different collections: the Sutta (relating to the doctrines), the Vinaya (relating to the discipline of the monks) and the Abhidhamma (relating generally to the same subjects as the suttas but dealing with them in a scholastic and technical manner). Scholars of Buddhistic religious history of modern times have failed as yet to fix any definite dates for the collection or composition of the different parts of the aforesaid canonical literature of the Buddhists. The suttas were however composed before the Abhidhamma and it is very probable that almost the whole of the canonical works were completed before 241 B.C., the date of the third council during the reign of King Asoka. The suttas mainly deal with the doctrine (Dhamma) of the Buddhistic faith whereas the Vinaya deals only with the regulations concerning the discipline of the monks. The subject of the Abhidhamma is mostly the same as that of the suttas, namely, the interpretation of the Dhamma. Buddhaghosa in his introduction to Atthasalini, the commentary on the Dhammasangani, says that the Abhidhamma is so called (abhi and dhamma) because it describes the same Dhammas as are related in the suttas in a more intensified (dhammātireka) and specialized (dhammavisesatthena) manner. The Abhidhammas do not give any new doctrines that are not in the suttas, but they deal somewhat elaborately with those that are already found in the suttas. Buddhaghosa in distinguishing the special features of the suttas from the Abhidhammas says that the acquirement of the former leads one to attain meditation (samadhi) whereas the latter leads one to attain wisdom (paññāsampadam). The force of this statement probably lies in this, that the dialogues of the suttas leave a chastening effect on the mind, the like of which is not to be found in the Abhidhammas, which busy themselves in enumerating the Buddhistic doctrines and defining them in a technical manner, which is more fitted to produce a reasoned

insight into the doctrines than directly to generate a craving for following the path of meditation for the extinction of sorrow. The Abhidhamma known as the Kathāvatthu differs from the other Abhidhammas in this, that it attempts to reduce the views of the heterodox schools to absurdity. The discussions proceed in the form of questions and answers, and the answers of the opponents are often shown to be based on contradictory assumptions.

The suttas contain five groups of collections called the Nikayas. These are (1) Digha Nikaya, called so on account of the length of the suttas contained in it; (2) Majjhima Nikaya (middling Nikaya), called so on account of the middling extent of the suttas contained in it; (3) Samyutta Nikāya (Nikāyas relating to special meetings), called samyutta on account of their being delivered owing to the meetings (samyoga) of special persons which were the occasions for them; (4) Anguttara Nikaya, so called because in each succeeding book of this work the topics of discussion increase by one1; (5) Khuddaka Nikaya containing Khuddaka patha, Dhammapada, Udāna, Itivuttaka, Sutta Nipāta, Vimanavatthu, Petavatthu, Theragatha, Therīgāthā, Jātaka, Niddesa, Patisambhidāmagga, Apadāna, Buddhavamsa, Caryāpiṭaka.

The Abhidhammas are Paṭṭhāna, Dhammasangani, Dhātukatha, Puggalapaññatti, Vibhanga, Yamaka and Kathavatthu. There exists also a large commentary literature on diverse parts of the above works known as atthakathā. The work known as Milinda Pañha (questions of King Milinda), of uncertain date, is of considerable philosophical value.

The doctrines and views incorporated in the above literature is generally now known as Sthaviravāda or Theravada. On the origin of the name Theravāda (the doctrine of the elders) Dipavamsa says that since the Theras (elders) met (at the first council) and collected the doctrines it was known as the Thera Vāda2. It does not appear that Buddhism as it appears in this Páli literature developed much since the time of Buddhaghoṣa (400 A.D.), the writer of Visuddhimagga (a compendium of theravāda doctrines) and the commentator of Dighanikāya, Dhammasangani, etc.

Hindu philosophy in later times seems to have been influenced by the later offshoots of the different schools of Buddhism, but it does not appear that Pāli Buddhism had any share in it. I 1 See Buddhaghoṣa's Atthasālinī, p. 25. 2 Oldenberg's Dipavamsa, p. 31.

have not been able to discover any old Hindu writer who could be considered as being acquainted with Pāli.

The Doctrine of Causal Connection of early Buddhism'.

The word Dhamma in the Buddhist scriptures is used generally in four senses: (1) Scriptural texts, (2) quality (guna), (3) cause (hetu) and (4) unsubstantial and soulless (nissatta nijjīva”). Of these it is the last meaning which is particularly important from the point of view of Buddhist philosophy. The early Buddhist philosophy did not accept any fixed entity as determining all reality; the only things with it were the unsubstantial phenomena and these were called dhammas. The question arises that if there is no substance or reality how are we to account for the phenomena? But the phenomena are happening and passing away and the main point of interest with the Buddha was to find out "What being what else is," "What happening what else happens" and "What not being what else is not." The phenomena are happening in a series and we see that there being certain phenomena there become some others; by the happening of some events others also are produced. This is called (pațiccasamuppada) dependent origination. But it is difficult to understand what is the exact nature of this dependence. The question as Samyutta Nikaya (II. 5) has it with which the Buddha started before attaining Buddhahood was this: in what miserable condition are the people! they are born, they decay, they die, pass away and are born again; and they do not know the path of escape from this decay, death and misery.

How to know the way to escape from this misery of decay and death. Then it occurred to him what being there, are decay and death, depending on what do they come? As he thought deeply into the root of the matter, it occurred to him that decay and death can only occur when there is birth (jāti), so they depend

1 There are some differences of opinion as to whether one could take the doctrine of the twelve links of causes as we find it in the Samyutta Nikaya as the earliest Buddhist view, as Samyutta does not represent the oldest part of the suttas. But as this doctrine of the twelve causes became regarded as a fundamental Buddhist doctrine and as it gives us a start in philosophy I have not thought it fit to enter into conjectural discussions as to the earliest form. Dr E. J. Thomas drew my attention to this fact. Atthasālinī, p. 38. There are also other senses in which the word is used, as dhamma desana where it means religious teaching. The Lankavatāra described Dharmma as guṇadravyapūrvakā dharmmā, i.e. Dharmmas are those which are associated as attributes and substances.

on birth. What being there, is there birth, on what does birth depend? Then it occurred to him that birth could only be if there were previous existence (bhava)'. But on what does this existence depend, or what being there is there bhava. Then it occurred to him that there could not be existence unless there were holding fast (upādāna). But on what did upādāna depend? It occurred to him that it was desire (tanha) on which upādāna depended. There can be upādāna if there is desire (tanha). But what being there, can there be desire? To this question it occurred to him that there must be feeling (vedanā) in order that there may be desire. But on what does vedanā depend, or rather what must be there, that there may be feeling (vedana)? To this it occurred to him that there must be a sense-contact (phassa) in order that there may be feeling. If there should be no sensecontact there would be no feeling. But on what does sensecontact depend? It occurred to him that as there are six sensecontacts, there are the six fields of contact (āyatana). But on what do the six ayatanas depend? It occurred to him that there must be the mind and body (nāmarūpa) in order that there may be the six fields of contact'; but on what does nāmarūpa depend? It occurred to him that without consciousness (viññāna) there could be no nāmarūpa. But what being there would there

1 This word bhava is interpreted by Candrakirtti in his Mādhyamīka vṛtti, p. 565 (La Vallée Poussin's edition) as the deed which brought about rebirth (punarbhavajanakam karma samutthāpayati kāyena vācā manasă ca).

2 Atthasālinī, p. 385, upādānanti daļhagahaṇam. Candrakīrtti in explaining upādāna says that whatever thing a man desires he holds fast to the materials necessary for attaining it (yatra vastuni satṛṣṇastasya vastuno ʼrjanāya viḍhapanāya upādānamupādatte tatra tatra prärthayate). Madhyamika vṛtti, p. 565.

3 Candrakirtti describes tṛṣṇā as äsvādanābhinandanādhyavasānasthānādātmapriyarūpairviyogo mã bhūt, nityamaparityāgo bhavediti, yeyam prarthana—the desire that there may not ever be any separation from those pleasures, etc., which are dear to us. Ibid. 565.

* We read also of phassāyatana and phassakāya. M. N. 11. 261, III. 280, etc. Candrakirtti says that ṣaḍbhirāyatanadvāraiḥ kṛtyaprakṛiyāḥ pravarttante prajñāyante. tannāmarūpapratyayam şaḍāyatanamucyate. saḍbhyašcāyatanebhyaḥ ṣaṭsparśakāyāḥ pravarttante. M. V. 565.

Āyatana means the six senses together with their objects. Ayatana literally is "Field of operation." Salāyatana means six senses as six fields of operation. Candrakirtti has āyatanadvāraiḥ.

• I have followed the translation of Aung in rendering nāmarūpa as mind and body, Compendium, p. 271. This seems to me to be fairly correct. The four skandhas are called nāma in each birth. These together with rūpa (matter) give us nāmarūpa (mind and body) which being developed render the activities through the six sense-gates possible so that there may be knowledge. Cf. M. V. 564. Govindānanda, the commentator

be viññāna. Here it occurred to him that in order that there might be viññāna there must be the conformations (sankhāra)'. But what being there are there the sankhāras? Here it occurred to him that the sankhāras can only be if there is ignorance (avijjā). If avijjā could be stopped then the sankhāras will be stopped, and if the sankhāras could be stopped viññāna could be stopped and so on.

It is indeed difficult to be definite as to what the Buddha actually wished to mean by this cycle of dependence of existence sometimes called Bhavacakra (wheel of existence). Decay and death (jarāmaraṇa) could not have happened if there was no birth. This seems to be clear. But at this point the difficulty begins. We must remember that the theory of rebirth was

on Sankara's bhāṣya on the Brahma-sūtras (11. ii. 19), gives a different interpretation of Nāmarupa which may probably refer to the Vijñānavāda view though we have no means at hand to verify it. He says-To think the momentary as the permanent is Avidyā; from there come the samskāras of attachment, antipathy or anger, and infatuation; from there the first vijñāna or thought of the foetus is produced; from that ālayavijñāna, and the four elements (which are objects of name and are hence called nama) are produced, and from those are produced the white and black, semen and blood called rūpa. Both Vacaspati and Amalānanda agree with Govindānanda in holding that nāma signifies the semen and the ovum while rūpa means the visible physical body built out of them. Vijñāña entered the womb and on account of it namarupa were produced through the association of previous karma. See Vedāntakalpataru, pp. 274, 275. On the doctrine of the entrance of vijñāña into the womb compare D. N. 11. 63.

1 It is difficult to say what is the exact sense of the word here. The Buddha was one of the first few earliest thinkers to introduce proper philosophical terms and phraseology with a distinct philosophical method and he had often to use the same word in more or less different senses. Some of the philosophical terms at least are therefore rather elastic when compared with the terms of precise and definite meaning which we find in later Sanskrit thought. Thus in S. N. 111. p. 87, “Sańkhatam abhisańkharonti,” sankhāra means that which synthesises the complexes. In the Compendium it is translated as will, action. Mr Aung thinks that it means the same as karma; it is here used in a different sense from what we find in the word sankhāra khandha (viz. mental states). We get a list of 51 mental states forming saṁkhāra khandha in Dhamma Sangani, p. 18, and another different set of 40 mental states in Dharmasamgraha, p. 6. In addition to these forty cittasamprayuktasamskāra, it also counts thirteen cittaviprayuktasamskāra. Candrakīrtti interprets it as meaning attachment, antipathy and infatuation, p. 563. Govindānanda, the commentator on Śankara's Brahma-sütra (II. ii. 19), also interprets the word in connection with the doctrine of Pratityasamutpāda as attachment, antipathy and infatuation.

2 Samyutta Nikāya, II. 7–8.

3 Jarā and maraṇa bring in śoka (grief), paridevanā (lamentation), duḥkha (suffering), daurmanasya (feeling of wretchedness and miserableness) and upāyāsa (feeling of extreme destitution) at the prospect of one's death or the death of other dear ones. All these make up suffering and are the results of jati (birth). M. V. (B. T. S. p. 208). Śankara in his bhāṣya counted all the terms from jarā, separately. The whole series is to be taken as representing the entirety of duḥkhaskandha.