much as the former legislates only with respect to external actions, and provides for the freedom of all by limiting and defining that of individuals. The description of Right which results is of a coercive character, and demands the protection of the State; which itself is fundamentally a legal institution, and based upon contracts.

392. Theoretical knowledge (founded on the conception of Nature), and Practical (founded on that of Free-agency), form two distinct spheres, as it were, of the same whole, and differ altogether in their principles. The faculty of Judgment interposes between these two powers and their objects-Nature and Free-will, (which are united by an inexplicable link in the mind of man); and speculates on their mutual accordance. It does not add anything to objective knowledge, but enables us to reflect on Nature as a whole, by means of a peculiar principle, that of Proportionateness of the means to the end; which is not objective but purely subjective. The Judgment therefore makes the particular subordinate to the universal; and operates partly by means of classification, partly by reflection. The latter process (that of reflection) affixes to Nature the conception of an Understanding, conformably with a subjective law, prescribing the unlimited diffusion of the employment of the Understanding; and the confirmation of its principle in its application is united with an intellectual satisfaction. In this manner arises the æsthetical consideration of Nature with a view to the principles of formal proportionateness; the pleasure derived from the Beautiful and Sublime, and the teleological observation of Nature according to the principle of material and internal proportion. The consideration of organic objects in nature, of which we cannot think except according to the principle of an internal adaptation, although we can explain nothing by such a principle, leads us to the anticipation of a certain end and aim proposed in the world by a supersensuous spirit, which elevates practical cognition to certainty. (Physico-Ethico-Theology, or Teleology.)

393. Works of Kant. His grand enterprise was his Critical examination of our faculties of knowledge on the prin

1 Teleology denotes the consideration of final causes.

ciples of a Transcendental Philosophy, i.e. of a theory which deduces, from an examination of the faculties of the human mind, certain established principles as the conditions of its operations; giving to all these speculations a systematic form. Of this great design Kant has completed some parts, with his characteristic originality, acuteness, and depth of thought: for instance, the Metaphysical system of Nature, in which he has shown himself the precursor of the Dynamic Philosophy, inasmuch as he maintains that Matter fills Space in virtue of impulsive forces (those of Expansion and Attraction). To this he added his Moral Metaphysics, or Theory of Right and Virtue: as well as separate dissertations on Religious Anthropology, Education, and other important subjects, which contain many admirable and profound observations.

Kant's earlier works are:

Gedanken von der wahren Schatzung der lebendigen Kräfte, Königsb. 1746, 8vo. Principiorum Metaphysicor. nova dilucidatio, ibid. 1755, 4to. Betrachtungen über den Optimismus, Königsb. 1759, 4to. Monadologia Physica, Spec. I, ibid. 1756. 4to. Versuch den Begriff der negativen Grössen in die Weltweish. einzuführen, Königsb. 1763, 8vo. Einzig möglicher Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseyns Gottes, ebend. 1763; zuletzt 1794, 8vo. Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier Syllog. Figuren, ebend. 1763; Frankf. und Leipz. 1797. Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen, Königsb. 1764, 8vo.; Riga, 1771. Träume eines Geisterschers, Riga, 1766, 8vo.; 1769. Allgem. Naturgesch. und Theorie des Himmels, etc. 4te Aufl. Zeitz. 1808, 8vo. De Mundi Sensibilis atque Intelligibilis Forma et Principiis, Regiomont. 1770, 4to.; (a work in which he gives the first hint of the plan of his great Critical undertaking). The above, with several other treatises, are collected in KANT'S Kleinen Schriften, Königsb. und Leipz. 1727, III Bde. 8vo.__Verm. Schriften, achte und vollst. Ausg. (herausg. von TIEFTRUNK), Halle, 1799-1807, IV Bde. 8vo. Sammlung einiger bisher unbekannt gebliebenen Schriften von Im. Kant (herausg. von RINK), Königsb. 1800, 8vo.

Kant's principal works are:

Kritik der reinen Vernuft, Riga, 1781, 6te Aufl.; Leipz 1818, 8vo. (of this an English translation has been made by HAYWARD, 8vo. Lond. 1838 and 1848; and a careful translation is now preparing for Bohn's Standard Library, and will be published in October 1852). Kritik der praktischen Vernuft, Riga, 1788; 5te Aufl. Leipz. 1818, 8vo. Kritik der Urtheilskraft, Berl. 1790; 3te Aufl. 1799, 8vo. Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik, etc. Riga, 1783, 8vo. Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, Riga, 1785, 8vo.; 4te Aufl. 1797. (Metaphysics of Ethics, translated by SEMPLE, 8vo. Edinb.

1836.) Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft, Riga. 1786, 8vo.; 3te Aufl. 1800. Ueber eine Entdeckung, nach der alle neue Kritik der reinen Vernunft durch eine ältere entebehrlich gemacht werden soll, Königsb. 1792, 8vo. Die Religion innerhalb der Gränzen der blossen Vernunft, Königsb. 1793, 8vo.; 2te verm. Aufl. 1794. (Theory of Religion, translated by SEMPLE, 8vo. Edinb. 1840). Zum ewigen Frieden: ein philosophischer Entwurf, Königsb. 1795, 1796, 8vo. Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Rechtslehre, Königsb. 1799, 8vo.; 2te Aufl. 1803, 8vo. Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Tugendlehre, Königsb. 1797, 8vo.; 2te Aufl. 1803. (Both are contained under the title of Metaphysik der Sitten.) Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht, Königsb. 1798; 3te Aufl. 1821, 8vo. Der Streit der Facultäten, Königsb. 1798, 8vo. His complete works, edited by ROSENKRANTZ and SCHUBERT, 12 vols. 8vo. Leips. 1838-40. Some of his works were translated into Latin by BORN, 4 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1796--92. Works by other writers illustrative of Kant's principles:

The Logic of Kant, a Manual for the Academical Classes, by G. B. JAHSCHE, Königsb. 1809, 8vo. (published from the papers of the students). Kant's Logic, by RICHARDSON, 8vo. Lond. 1818. + Education, published by RINK, ibid. 1803, 8vo. + Lectures on Religious Philosophy, Leips. 1817, 8vo. (published from the papers of the students). Lectures on Metaphysics, (published by the Editor of the Religious Philosophy, etc., POLITZ), Erfurdt, 1821, 8vo.

394. With regard to the general character of the Critical system of Kant, we may observe that it confined itself to a contemplation of the phenomena of Consciousness; and attempted to ascertain, by analysis, not of our conceptions, but of the faculties of the soul, certain invariable and necessary principles of knowledge; proceeding to define their usage, and to form an estimate of them collectively, with reference to their formal character: in which investigation the distinctions and definitions of those faculties adopted by the school of Wolf, were presumed to be valid. It exalted the human mind, by making it the centre of its system; but at the same time confined and restricted it by means of the consequences deduced. It discouraged also the spirit of Dogmatical Speculation, and the ambition of demonstrating all things by means of mere intellectual ideas, making the faculties for acquiring knowledge the measure of things capable of being known, and assigning the pre-eminence to Practical Reason rather than to Speculative, in virtue of its end, viz. Wisdom; which is the highest that reason can aspire to; because to act virtuously is an universal and unlimited, but to acquire knowledge only a conditional, duty.

It had the effect of mitigating the dogmatical and speculative tendencies of the mind, and the extravagant attempt to prove everything by means of conceptions of the Understanding: it proscribed Mysticism, and circumscribed the provinces of Science and Belief. It taught men to discriminate and appreciate the grounds, the tendency, the defects, and partial views, as well as the excellencies of other systems; at the same time that it embodied a lively principle for awakening and strengthening the interest attaching to genuine philosophical research. It afforded to philosophy a firm and steady centre of action in the unchangeable nature of the human mind. In general, in may be observed that the theory of Kant constructed little; and rather tended to destroy the the structures of an empty Dogmatism of the Understanding, and prepare, by means of self-knowledge, the way for a better state of philosophical science; seeking in Reason itself the principles on which to distinguish the several parts of philosophy.

On the other hand, it has been urged against this system: that it overlooks and mistakes the nature of Rational Ideas; because its author, without even examining into the claims of both, attributes to experience a preponderance over the opposite principle, making demonstration the sole evidence of knowledge; that it makes a distinction between speculative and practical reason, and that it dislocates (as it were), by its subdivisions, the faculties of the human mind. To this must be added (it is objected) a certain Formalism, which betrays itself even in his practical system; and in consequence of which the student is led to regard things principally in a subjective point of view; that is, with a reference to the laws and forms of human activity: from which, to extreme Idealism, is an easy step.

The following works contain criticisms on Kant's theory:

D. JENISCH, Ueber den Grund und Werth der Entdeckungen des Hrn. Prof. Kant, Berl. 1790, 8vo. JOH. NEEB, Ueber Kant's Verdienste um das Interesse der Philosophirenden Vernunft, 2te Aufl. Frankft. a. M. 1795, 8vo. GLO. BJ. GERLACH, Philosophie, Gesetzgebung, und Aesthetik, in ihrem jetzigen Verhältniss zur sittlichen und ästhetischen Bildung der Deutschen eine Priesschrift, Posen, 1804, 8vo. FLUGGE'S Versuch einer historisch-kritischen Darstellung des Einflusses der Kantischen Philosophie auf Religion und Theologie. 2 Thle. Hannov.

1796, 1798, 8vo. TR. BEN. AGAP. LEO, Krito, oder über den wohlthätigen Einfluss der kritischen Philosophie, Leipz. 1806, 8vo. STEUDLIN, Abh. uber den Werth der Krit. Phil. in s. Beitr. zur Phil. und Gesch: der Rel. 2, 4, und 5te Th. Gött. 1797-98-99. See also, BouTERWECK, Imm. Kant: ein Denkmal. ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER'S Appendix to his work, mentioned § 428, containing a Critique of Kant's theory. BUSSE, Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft von Im. Kant in ihren Grunden widerlegt, Dresd. 1828.

Earliest Adversaries of Kant's System.

See [K. G. HAUSIUS] Materialien zur Gesch. der Krit. Philosophie, nebst einer Histor. Einleitung zur Gesch. der Kantischen Philosophie, III Sammlungen, Leipz. 1793, 2 Bde. 8vo.

C. L. REINHOLD, Ueber die bisherigen Schicksale der Kantischen Philosophie, Jena, 1789, 8vo.

395. The first of Kant's great works produced, at its appearance, little sensation. When at last it began to attract attention, it excited a great sensation, and many questions with regard to its end and character. The very language in which it was couched, containing a set of phrases and terms entirely new, was an obstacle to its progress, and, no less than its contents, revolted the minds of most of the learned countrymen of its author. A great variety of mistakes were necessarily committed with respect to it. Some pronounced it superficial, and gave it credit for nothing more than an appearance of originality. Others, admitting it to be origina, declared it to be dangerous and pernicious; inasmuch as it set forth a system of Idealism, which would annihilate the objective reality of knowledge, destroy all rational belief in God and the immortality of the soul, and consequently was adverse to all that man holds most sacred. Several eminent men became in various ways adversaries to the new system, of whom we nay particularise: Mendelssohn;1 Hamann and Jacobi (§ 415);

1 M. MENDELSSOHN'S Morgenstunden. 2 Bd. Berl. 1785, 8vo; (see § 381). Prufung der Mendelssohn'schen Morgenstunden, oder_aller speculativen Beweise fur das Daseyn Gottes, in Vorlesungen von L. H. JAKOB. Nebst einer Abhandl. von KANT, Leipz. 1786, 8vo.

2 HAMANN In his Letters to JACOBI--JACOBI's Works, I und IV B. JACOBI, Ueber das Unternehemen des Kriticismus, die Vernunft zu Verstände zu bringen, etc. in Reinhold's Beiträgen zur leichten Uebersicht, etc., III, 1.