lish king, successor of Edmund, made him | do homage and embrace Christianity. In 952 Aulaf was driven out by the Christian Northumbrians, and, tired of struggling against the English, he went over to lead the Ostmen of Dublin against the Irish. He defeated Murdoch, king of Leinster, in 956, and put him to death the next year. Two more Leinster princes suffered the same fate in 977. At this time he called himself king of Ireland and the Isles. In 980 Aulaf lost his son and heir, Reginald or Regnell, in an engagement against the Hibernian aborigines, and in the same year, heart-broken, he went on a pilgrimage to Iona, where he died, after a stormy life. II. Son of Guthfrith, and uncle of the preceding, lived in the latter half of the 10th century. He joined in the wars of his nephew against the Saxons in south Britain and the Celts of Erin. He ravaged Armagh in 932, and Kilcullen in 938. In 939 he was obliged to shut himself up in Dublin. He made an irruption into England with his nephew, conquered Edmund, the successor of Athelstan, in 943, and recovered Northumbria. He lived and died a pagan and a hater of the Christian clergy. AULIC COUNCIL (Lat. aula, a court or hall; Ger. Reichshofrath), a tribunal under the old German empire, standing at its first institution next in authority to the supreme imperial chamber (Reichskammergericht), to which it was afterward made equal in power. It was formed in 1501 by the emperor Maximilian, chiefly from members of his tribunal for the administration of justice in the Austrian dominions, and, as ultimately organized, consisted of a president, vice president, and 18 councillors, all appointed and paid by the emperor. The authority of the aulic council was confirmed at the peace of Westphalia, made equal to that of the chamber, and sharply defined in the decrees concerning it (Reichshofraths-Ordnungen) of 1559 and 1654. Six of the councillors must be of the Protestant religion, and the unanimous vote of these six could not be entirely overruled by the others, no matter what their majority. The council was divided into two sections, one of nobles (Grafen und Herren), the other of legal scholars or experts (Gelehrte), all equal in rank, though the last named class received higher salaries than the others. The vice chancellor appointed by the electorate of Mentz also had a seat in the council. This tribunal had exclusive jurisdiction over feudal affairs connected with the empire, appeals in criminal cases in the states immediately subject to the emperor, and questions concerning the imperial government itself. The members of the council held office, except in extraordinary cases, during one reign; each emperor, immediately on his accession, appointing new ones. The council passed out of existence with the old German empire itself in 1806. AULIS, in ancient geography, a town of Hellas, in Boeotia, situated on the strait of Euripus, which separates Boeotia and Eubœa; it had a temple of Diana. Here Agamemnon assembled his fleet preparatory to crossing the Egean sea to Troy, and here his daughter Iphigenia was presented as a sacrifice to Diana. In the time of Pausanias only a few potters inhabited it. AULNAY DE CHARNISÉ, Charles de Menou, seigneur d', a French proprietor, who figured largely in the history of Acadia or Nova Scotia, died in 1650. He was sent out about 1632 by Commander Isaac de Razilly, the proprietor of Acadia, and on his death acted as agent for his brother Claude de Razilly, whose rights he purchased in 1642. A civil war broke out soon after between him and La Tour, a neighboring proprietor, in which both parties committed excesses, and both sought the aid of New England. D'Aulnay secured the favor of the French government, and, after capturing Madame de la Tour in her fort in 1645, was appointed governor. His authority extended to the Kennebec. His widow, Jeanne Motin, married his old rival La Tour. AUMALE (formerly Albemarle), a town of France, in the department of Seine-Inférieure, 40 m. N. E. of Rouen; pop. in 1866, 2,929. In 1592 a battle was fought here between the French and the Spaniards, in which Henry IV. was wounded. In the beginning of the 16th century Aumale was a county belonging to Claude de Lorraine, 5th son of René II., duke of Lorraine, who was afterward created duke of Guise by Francis I. of France, and became the head of the illustrious family of that name. It was raised to the rank of a duchy by Henry II., and held as such by Claude II., 3d son of Claude I., and brother of the celebrated Francis of Guise. This duke of Aumale distinguished himself during the war of the French against the emperor Charles V., was one of the promoters of the St. Bartholomew massacre, and was killed by a cannon ball before La Rochelle in 1573. His son Charles de Lorraine fought against Henry IV., assisting the duke of Mayenne in the battles of Arques and Ivry, where the troops of the league were defeated.-The title of duke of Aumale, after being extinct for years, was given to HENRI EUGÈNE PHILIPPE LOUIS D'ORLEANS, 4th son of Louis Philippe, born in Paris, Jan. 16, 1822. Like his brothers, he was educated at one of the public colleges of Paris. In 1839 he was appointed captain in the 4th regiment of the line; he took part in the African expedition of Médéah, served a second campaign in Algeria, and returned to France in 1841 on account of ill health. While entering Paris, Sept. 13, 1841, at the head of the 17th regiment, of which he had been appointed colonel, a man of the name of Quenisset discharged a gun at him, but missed his aim. In 1842 he was made brigadier general, and commander of the district of Médéah. On May 16, 1843, he attacked and routed Abd-el-Kader, and as a reward was made lieutenant general and commander of the province of Constantine. In 1847 he was appointed governor of Algeria | in place of Marshal Bugeaud, and soon afterward received Abd-el-Kader's surrender. In 1848, on hearing of the revolution in Paris, he exhorted the population to wait calmly for further developments; and on March 3 he resigned and joined the other members of his family in England. On the outbreak of the FrancoGerman war in 1870 he offered his services to the government, but they were not accepted. After the downfall of Napoleon III. he returned to France, and in 1872 took his seat as a member of the national assembly. His eldest son, prince de Condé, died in Australia in 1866, aged 21, and his wife, a Neapolitan princess, in 1869. His only remaining child, the duke de Guise, born Jan. 5, 1854, died in Paris, July 25, 1872. He inherited a large fortune from the Condé family. In 1872 he was elected a member of the French academy. Besides pamphlets and articles on political and military matters, he is the author of Histoire des princes de Condé (2 vols., Paris, 1869), translated into English by the Rev. R. Brown-Borthwick (2 vols., London, 1872). AUNGERVYLE, Richard (known in history as Richard de Bury), an English statesman and bibliographer, born near Bury St. Edmunds in 1287, died at Bishop's Auckland, April 24, 1345. He was educated at Oxford, appointed tutor of the prince of Wales, and after the accession of his pupil to the throne as Edward III. received successively the appointments of coiffeur to the king, treasurer of the wardrobe, and keeper of the privy seal. In 1333 he was consecrated bishop of Durham. In 1334 he succeeded Archbishop Stratford as lord high chancellor of England, which office he resigned in 1335 for that of treasurer. He went several times abroad as ambassador, once to Rome and thrice to Paris. Aungervyle was a diligent purchaser of rare and costly books, and when bishop of Durham his collection was one of the largest in England. He founded also for the use of the students at Oxford a library, which was then the best in the kingdom. The latter part of his life he gave up entirely to books. He left a Latin treatise on bibliography (the earliest by any English writer), entitled Philobiblon (Cologne, 1473; English translation by J. B. Inglis, London, 1832); Epistola Familiarium, including some letters to his friend Petrarch; and Orationes ad Principes. AURELIAN (LUCIUS DOMITIUS AURELIANUS), a Roman emperor, born in Pannonia, or according to some authorities on the southern confines of Dacia, in the early part of the 3d century, assassinated between Heraclea and Byzantium, A. D. 275. His parents were poor and of the lowest class. He entered a Roman legion at an early age, and by his bravery and the remarkable feats of arms which his almost gigantic stature and great strength enabled him to perform he secured rapid promotion, and great personal popularity with the soldiers, among whom he was designated as Aurelianus manu ad ferrum (Aurelian Sword-in-Hand). He distinguished himself under Valerian and Claudius II. in campaigns against the Goths; and when Claudius died, although his brother Quintillius assumed the purple as his heir, Aurelian was proclaimed emperor by the army of the Danube, of which he was then in command (270). Quintillius committed suicide after a nominal reign of several weeks, and Aurelian took the throne without opposition. He drove the Goths beyond the Danube, carried on successful campaigns against the Alemanni and other German tribes, and to protect Rome against them built a line of strong walls, the ruins of which may still be traced about the city. He next undertook a war against Palmyra, then a magnificent city in the height of its prosperity, ruled by Zenobia, the widow of King Odenathus. He captured the city after one of the ablest defences in history, treated the people with comparative kindness, and refused to put Zenobia to death, though his troops demanded her execution. After his departure the Palmyrenes rose and massacred the Roman garrison; upon this he returned, destroyed the city, and put the people to the sword (273). Zenobia was carried to Rome, and appeared in the emperor's triumph. Aureliam next defeated an attempt at rebellion made by the Egyptians under their Roman governor. Tetricus, who had made himself the independent ruler of the greater part of Gaul, now surrendered after little more than the threat of a war; and the Roman empire resumed something of its old territorial importance. The senate bestowed upon Aurelian the title of "restorer of the empire." After effecting many improvements in the government of the city, the discipline of the army, and the condition of the people, the emperor was murdered while on the way to a campaign against the Persians, by his secretary, whom he had offended by some harsh treatment long before. AURELIUS, Marcus. See ANTONINUS. AURELLE (or D'AURELLE) DE PALADINES, a French soldier, born in 1803. He distinguished himself in the Crimean war. Before the outbreak of the war with Germany in 1870 he was commander of the 5th military division of France, at Metz. After the fall of the empire he was charged by the provisional government at Tours with the formation of the army of the Loire. After a battle near Coulmiers, he drove Gen. von der Tann from Orleans (Nov. 9-10), winning the first French victory over the Germans. For this he was appointed (Nov. 15) commander-in-chief of the army of the Loire. On Nov. 28 he attacked the left wing of Prince Frederick Charles at Beaune-la-Rolande, but encountered a severe repulse. On Dec. 2 he was beaten by the grand duke of Mecklenburg at Artenay, and on Dec. Frederick Charles drove him back to the forest of Orleans, renewing the attack the next day and taking possession of the town at midnight, after brisk fighting. On the same day the French had been thoroughly routed by another detachment of Frederick Charles's army near Chevilly and Chilleurs, and driven either across or along the Loire above Orleans, thus splitting the army of the Loire into two portions. D'Aurelle was removed from his command. He refused the command of the camp of Cherbourg, as well as the appointment of successor to Gen. Chanzy. As member of the national assembly at Bordeaux he opposed the continuation of the war, and was one of the committee of fifteen appointed to assist Thiers and Favre in arranging the preliminaries of the treaty of peace. He became commander-in-chief of the national guard of the department of the Seine, and in 1872 a member of the court martial for the trial of Marshal Bazaine. AURICH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, capital of an administrative division of the same name, and formerly capital of the principality of East Friesland, 60 m. N. W. of Bremen; pop. in 1871, 4,261. It has a castle which was formerly the residence of the prince of East Friesland, a college (gymnasium), and a normal school. AURIFABER, the Latinized name of JOHANN GOLDSCHMIED, or GOLDSCHMIDT, one of the companions of Luther, born near Mansfeld in 1519, died at Erfurt in 1579. He studied at Wittenberg, and became Luther's amanuensis in 1545. In the Smalcaldic war he was chaplain to a Saxon regiment, and in 1551 court chaplain of the elector of Saxony, but he became involved in theological disputes and was removed in 1562. He collected the unpublished manuscripts of Luther, and was one of the collaborators of the Jena edition of the reformer's works. He edited the Epistola Lutheri and the "Table Talk." In 1566 he became pastor at Erfurt. AURILLAC, a town of southern France, capital of the department of Cantal, in a valley on the Jourdanne, here spanned by a fine bridge, about 60 m. S. by W. of Clermont; pop. in 1866, 10,998. It is well built, with wide streets, kept clean by the overflowing of a large reservoir, into which two fountains discharge. The old buildings include the castle of St. Stephen, the church of St. Géraud, the church of Notre Dame of the 13th century, and the college, which contains a valuable library and a cabinet of mineralogy. The manufactures are copper utensils, jewelry, woollen stuffs, blondes, laces, and paper.-Aurillac was founded in the 9th century. The wall formerly surrounding it has been destroyed. The town suffered much in the wars of the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. AURIOL, a French borough in the department of Bouches-du-Rhône, 16 m. N. E. of Marseilles; pop. in 1866, 5,182. It has manufactories of flags, and near it are coal mines. AURIVILLIUS, Karl, a Swedish orientalist, born at Stockholm in 1717, died in 1786. He mastered the Syriac, Arabic, Sanskrit, and other oriental languages. After 1754 he resided at Upsal, at first giving private instruction in the poetry of different nations, and in 1772 was appointed professor of oriental languages in the university. He succeeded Linnæus as member of the academy of sciences in Upsal, and was an active member of the commission for preparing a new translation of the Bible into Swedish. AUROCHS, the bos bison of Europe, one of the contemporaries of the mammoth (elephas primigenius), an animal of the ox family, once abundant, but now existing only in the forests of Lithuania belonging to the czar of Russia, and possibly in the Caucasus. It would long ago have become extinct but for the protection of man. The ure-ox (B. urus or B. primigenius), found in the post-tertiary deposits, is believed to be the same as was described by Cæsar in his Commentaries as abounding in the forests of Gaul; it existed in Switzerland as late as the 16th century. Both species are found abundantly in the post-tertiary of Europe, and corresponding species in America, and no doubt furnished a large share of the food of prehistoric man. AURORA (in Greek, Eos), the goddess of the morning, was the daughter of Hyperion and Thia, the wife of Astræus, and the mother of the winds. She carried off Orion to the island of Ortygia, and detained him there till he was slain by Diana. She bore away Cephalus, and had by him a son named Phaethon. To Tithonus, son of Laomedon, king of Troy, she bore Memnon and Æmathion. Aurora is sometimes represented in a saffron-colored robe, with a wand or torch in her right hand, emerging from a golden palace, and ascending her chariot; sometimes in a flowing veil, which she is in the act of throwing back, opening the gates of morning; and sometimes as a nymph, wearing a garland and standing in a chariot drawn by winged horses, with a torch in one hand and flowers in the other, which she scatters as she goes. AURORA, a city of Kane county, Ill., on Fox river and the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy railroad, 40 m. W. by S. of Chicago; pop. in 1860, 6,011; in 1870, 11,162. It contains 14 churches, a handsome city hall, a college, and many important manufactories, the power for which is furnished by the Fox river. The construction and repair shops of the railway situated here employ about 700 men. A semiweekly newspaper, and 3 weeklies, one of which is German, are published here. ashen color; these disappear while the traces of the dark segment whence the phenomenon originated remain still on the horizon." Although auroras are more commonly seen in high latitudes than near the tropics, it is not toward the true poles of the earth that the increase takes place, nor does the increase continue after certain high latitudes have been reached. Thus the frequency of auroras is different at different stations in the same latitude; and in passing poleward from places in a given latiAURORA BOREÁLIS (more correctly Aurora tude, the region of maximum frequency is Polaris, since the phenomenon is not confined reached more quickly in some longitudes than to northern latitudes), called also NORTHERN in others. Thus an inhabitant of St. PetersSTREAMERS and Northern LigHTS, a luminous burg would have to travel to lat. 71° N. before appearance, associated with energetic disturb- reaching the place of greatest auroral activity; ances of the earth's magnetism and electrical while an inhabitant of Washington need travel condition. It is seldom seen save in high lati- northward only to lat. 56° to reach the region tudes, though occasionally the tropics are visit- where auroral displays are most frequent. The ed by auroral displays. In polar regions au- zone on the earth's northern hemisphere where roras are very common, and usually far more auroras occur most commonly and attain their brilliant than in the temperate zones. Hum- greatest splendor, may be represented by conboldt gives the following description of the structing a ring of card or paper, of such diappearances presented when the auroral phe-mensions as to agree with the 60th parallel of nomena are fully developed, although it must be north latitude, and then pushing the ring southunderstood that there is considerable variety in ward on the side of America and northward these displays: "An aurora borealis is always on the side of Asia, until it passes through the preceded by the formation of a sort of nebular most southerly part of Hudson bay and the veil which slowly ascends to a height of four, six, most northerly part of Siberia. The position eight, or even to ten degrees. It is toward the of the corresponding zone in the southern magnetic meridian of the place that the sky, hemisphere has not yet been determined; but at first pure, commences to become brownish. it is believed that the southern zone of maxiThrough this obscure segment, the color of mum auroral frequency is nearly antipodal to which passes from brown to violet, the stars the northern zone. From what we know of are seen as through a thick fog. A wider arc, the connection between the occurrence of aubut one of brilliant light, at first white, then yel- roras and disturbances of the earth's magnetlow, bounds the dark segment. Sometimes the ism, we have every reason to believe that as luminous arc appears agitated for entire hours the magnetic poles of the earth are slowly by a sort of effervescence and by a continual shifting, so the zone of maximum auroral frechange of form, before the rising of the rays quency must also change in position. It canand columns of light, which ascend as far as not be doubted, for example, that in the 17th the zenith. The more intense is the emission century, when the northern magnetic pole lay of the polar light, the more vivid are its colors, between England and the north pole, terrestrial which from violet and bluish white pass through conditions were more favorable for the occurall the intermediate shades to green and purple rence of auroras in England than they now red. Sometimes the columns of light appear are, or than they then were in corresponding to come out of the brilliant arc mingled with latitudes in North America. At present, on blackish rays similar to a thick smoke. Some- the contrary, the northern magnetic pole lies times they rise simultaneously in different parts between the north pole and the northwestern of the horizon; they unite themselves into a extremity of the American continent; hence sea of flames, the magnificence of which no auroras are more frequent and more brilliant painting could express, and at each instant in North America than in corresponding latirapid undulations cause their form and bril- tudes in Europe.-To the description given by liancy to vary. Motion appears to increase Humboldt we should add that sometimes in the visibility of the phenomenon. Around the high latitudes, instead of extending from the point in the heavens which corresponds to the horizon, the auroral arch appears in the form direction of the dipping needle produced, the of a complete oval. Hansteen relates that at rays appear to assemble together and form a Christiania he twice saw the auroral arch in boreal corona. It is rare that the appearance this form. Sometimes more than one arch has is so complete and is prolonged to the forma- been seen. Thus the observers who were sent tion of the corona; but when the latter ap- by the French government to winter at Bospears, it always announces the end of the phe-sekop in Finland, saw on one occasion no fewer nomenon. The rays then become more rare, shorter, and less vividly colored. Shortly nothing more is seen on the celestial vault than wide, motionless nebulous spots, pale or of an than nine arches, separated by dark spaces, "and resembling in their arrangement magnificent curtains of light, hung behind and below each other, their brilliant folds stretching com 4, 1872, estimates the height of the auroral corona on that occasion at 265 miles above the sea level. Prof. Olmsted's conclusion that the auroral arch is seldom below 70 miles in height or above 160 miles, would thus appear to be negatived. But probably all such estimates must be abandoned, and "our meteorological catalogues," as Arago advised, "must be disencumbered of a multitude of determinations of height, though due to such great names as Mairan, Halley, Krafft, Cavendish, and Dalton.”The extent of the earth's surface over which the same aurora has been visible has sometimes been remarkable. Kämtz mentions that on Jan. 5, 1769, a splendid aurora was seen simultaneously in France and in Pennsylvania; and that the remarkable aurora of Jan. 7, 1831, was seen from all parts of central and northern Europe, in Canada, and in the northern parts of the United States. But even these instances, and others of the same kind which might be cited, are surpassed in interest by the circumstance that auroras of great brilliancy occur simultaneously over the major part of both the northern and southern hemispheres. Kämtz mentions that when Capt. Cook's observations are analyzed, it appears that on every occasion when he observed an aurora australis an aurora borealis had been seen in Europe, or else the agitation of the magnetic needle proved that around the northern magnetic pole an auroral display must have been in progress. The aurora of Feb. 4, 1872, was seen not only in America and Europe, and over the northern hemisphere generally, as far S. as lat. 14° N., but in Mauritius, in South Africa, in Australia, and probably over the greater part of the southern hemisphere (for Mauritius is much further north than southern auroras are ordinarily seen). -Mairan and Cassini were the first to point out that auroras do not occur at all times with equal frequency or in equal splendor. The former mentions that a great number of auroras were seen at the beginning of the 16th century (a misprint probably for the 17th, as the context seems to imply) to beyond the year 1624, after which nothing more was heard of them till 1686. Kämtz mentions that between 1707 and 1790 there was a remarkable increase followed by decrease of auroral action, the maximum frequency being attained in 1790. Prof. Olmsted considered that there was sufficient evidence to establish a period of 20 years during which auroral displays are frequent, preceded and followed by intervals of from 60 to 65 years during which few are witnessed. But it is open to question whether the existence of this long period is as yet established. The actual frequency of auroras cannot be inferred from ob pletely across the sky." The position of the luminous region is not known. Arago was of opinion that each observer sees his own aurora, somewhat as each observer of a rainbow sees the luminous arc differently placed. Sir John Herschel says "no one can doubt that the light of the aurora originates nowhere but in the place where it is seen." But it has been considered that the most favorable conditions for the determination of the height of auroral gleams are presented when the auroral corona is formed. Now this corona always surrounds the point toward which the magnetic dipping needle points. Yet the magnetic dipping needles at different stations are not directed toward one and the same point; so that whatever the auroral corona may be, it does not seem to hold a definite place, in such sort that its distance can be determined by simultaneous observations; for it is the essential principle of the method of simultaneous observations that the lines of sight should be directed to one and the same point. Nor is it easy, on Herschel's theory, to interpret the fact that the auroral corona has been seen at stations distant more than 1,000 miles from each other, and always around the part of the heavens pointed to by the magnetic dipping needle. For a point immediately overhead at one station, and 100 miles from the earth's surface, would be below the horizon of a station 1,000 miles distant. We seem forced to adopt the conclusion that though there is no analogy whatever between the aurora and the rainbow, yet Arago was right when he asserted his belief that as each observer sees his own rainbow, so each observer sees a different aurora. We should thus be led to consider whether the nature of the luminous emanations-the direction, for instance, of the luminous flashes composing them -may not explain the formation of the auroral corona. In this case the position of the observer would affect the appearance of the phenomenon. -If we assume that reliance can be placed on the observations by means of which the height of the auroral arch has been estimated, we must assign a considerable elevation to many of these lights. On Oct. 17, 1819, an aurora was observed simultaneously at Gosport, Keswick, and Newtown Stewart, in Great Britain; and from the calculations made by Dalton the meteorologist, the arch was estimated to be 101 or 102 miles above the earth. More recently Sir John Herschel estimated that the arch in the aurora of March 9, 1861, was 83 miles above the earth. But he remarks that "the auroral light has been seen below the clouds, as in the polar seas by Parry, Sherer, and Ross, on Jan. 27, 1825; near the chain of the Rocky mountains on Dec. 2, 1850, by Har-servations made in temperate latitudes, where disty; and at Alford in Scotland on Feb. 24, 1842, by Farquharson; nay, even habitually seen as if hovering over the Coreen hills in the last-mentioned neighborhood, at a height of from 4,000 to 6,000 miles." Herr Galle, from observations made during the aurora of Feb. alone hitherto any attempt has been made to determine long periods. The longest period which has been thoroughly established is one of about 11 years. This period is associated with the occurrence of magnetic disturbances in cycles of 11 years. The connection |