last of the Llewellyns in 1282, and the coming out of the London citizens with horns and trumpets to meet the head of the slain patriot.

Nicholas Trivet, son of one of the king's justices in eyre, was born about the year 1258, and became one of the Dominican or Preaching Friars. He wrote Latin Annals of the Six Kings of the House of Anjou, ending in 1307 at the death of Edward I. His chronicle is well written, religious in its tone, and very trustworthy in its citation of testimony or transcripts of historical documents.

Peter Langtoft, of Langtoft, in Yorkshire, a regular canon of Augustinians at Bridlington, wrote in French verse a Chronicle of England, from Brut to the end of the reign of Edward I. His inaccurate French was that of an Englishman who had not lived in France; the first part of this chronicle abridged Geoffrey of Monmouth, professing to omit what Peter Langtoft took for fable, and to repeat only so much as he thought true. He then gave, from various authorities, the history of First English and Norman kings, down to the death of Henry III., and in the third part of his chronicle became a contemporary historian of the reign of Edward I. Writing in French for noblemen and gentlemen of England, Langtoft took especial care to make out the best case he could for the justice of King Edward's Scottish wars.

38. Writing in English for the English common people, Robert of Gloucester, a monk of the abbey in that town, produced at the same time a rhymed Chronicle of England, from the siege of Troy to the death of Henry III. in 1272. It was in long lines of seven accents, and occasionally six, and was the first complete history of his country, from the earliest times to his own day, written in popular rhymes by an EnglishThe language is very free from Norman admixture, and represents West Midland Transition English of the end of the thirteenth century. Part of the work must have been written after the year 1297, because it contains a reference to Louis IX. of France, as Saint Louis, and it was in 1297 that he was canonised. Robert of Gloucester wrote also rhymed Lives and Legends of the English Saints.

man.

Among other books written in English during the reign of Edward I., was the English version of The Lay of Havelok the Dane, which was made about the year 1280, and is one of the brightest and most interesting examples of the English of

TO A.D. 1307.]

HAVELOK. ENGLISH POEMS.

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that time. It told how the young royal Havelok was saved by the fisherman Grim from the usurping Godard, and how, he had landed with Grim and all his family at the spot in England now called, after Grim, Grimsby. There he became a stalwart youth, and served as cook's boy in the kitchen of a usurping Earl Godrich at Lincoln, who held the English princess Goldeburgh much as Godard in Denmark had held Havelok. Havelok proved to be the stoutest man in England, and Earl Godrich, who had promised to wed the princess to the best man in the land, thought treacherously to keep the letter and to break the spirit of his promise, by making her the wife of the cook's boy. But then the royal virtues of young Havelok displayed themselves. Both the usurpers were in due time confounded, and Havelok and Goldeburgh reigned sixty years in England. They had also fifteen sons and daughters, whereof every son became a king, and each daughter a queen. The seal of the borough of Grimsby to this day connects the town with the legend by showing a bold figure of Grim, with his defending sword over a small figure of the royal Havelok and his defending shield over a small figure of the royal Goldeburgh. From old time to this day, the boundary stone between Grimsby and Wellow has been called Havelok Stone, and Grimsby also contains an old Havelok Street.

To nearly the same date belongs A Fragment on Popular Science, which colours with religious thought an attempt to diffuse knowledge of some facts in astronomy, meteorology, physical geography, and physiology. A Metrical Version of the Psalms into English was another of the productions of this time. It is known as the Northumbrian Psalter. Luxury of the monks was attacked with satire in an English poem of the Land of Cockaygne (named from Coquina, a kitchen), a form of satire current in many parts of Europe, which told of a region free from trouble, where the rivers ran with oil, milk, wine, and honey; wherein the white and grey monks had an abbey of which the walls were built of pasties, which was paved with cakes and had puddings for pinnacles. Geese there flew about roasted, crying "Geese, all hot!" and the monks-as the song went on, it did not spare them. To the close of the reign of Edward I. belongs also a set of moralized proverbs, called the Proverbs of Hendying, in a Southern English dialect. Each proverb forms an appendix to a six-syllabled rhyming stanza, with the refrain added, “Quoth Hendying."

39. Less homely philosophy is represented by the writings of Duns Scotus and William Occam. Duns Scotus was the elder of the two. He died in 1308, and his work falls wholly within the period of Edward I.'s reign. Occam survived him nearly forty years. John Duns, called Scotus, and by the Parisians the Subtle Doctor, was, like Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar. He was first educated by the Franciscans of Newcastle, who sent him to Oxford. There he first studied, and then taught, for three years, opposing the doctrines of Thomas Aquinas with a success that is said (fabulously) to have attracted to Oxford 30,000 students. The Franciscans then sent Duns to Paris, where he took the degree of Doctor. In 1307 he had charge of the Theological School at Toulouse-less liberal than that of Paris-and there he sustained, with two hundred arguments, the Immaculate Conception. In 1308 Duns Scotus died. The followers of Thomas Aquinas, who called themselves Thomists, called the followers of Duns Scotus Scotists, or, with a contemptuous application of their chief's name, Dunces. Thomas Aquinas held that the faculties were distinguished, not only from each other, but from the essence of the mind, really and not nominally. Duns Scotus denied all real difference either between the several faculties or between the faculties and the mind, allowing only a nominal distinction between them.

William Occam was a pupil of Duns Scotus, and also a Franciscan. As his master was called the Subtle, so he was called the Invincible Doctor, and he carried on, with a broader spirit of philosophy, the war of the Nominalists against the Realists. The doctrine of Scotus and Occam is that which has prevailed in the latter ages of philosophy. Occam especially distinguished himself by the practical good sense which he brought into acute discussions of logic and metaphysics, and those studies owed much of their safe advancement in his day to contact with the English character. Occam's philosophy was not all speculative. While he attacked powerfully the despotism of mere dogmas, and encouraged each thinker to individual inquiry, he gave a workaday turn to his philosophy by boldly arguing against the domination of the Pope in temporal affairs. He was persecuted, but he never flinched; and he died firm to his sense of truth, at Munich, in 1347.

40. We have passed with Occam from the reign of Edward I. through that of Edward II. (1307-1327), and shall do the same

TO A.D. 1338.]

ROBERT OF BRUNNE.

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when speaking of Robert of Brunne, whose Handlynge Synne, written soon after the year 1300, is the last book of Edward I.'s time that has yet to be described. Robert Mannyng, of Brunne, now Bourn, seven or eight miles from Market Deeping, in Lincolnshire, was a canon of the Gilbertine order, who, from 1288 to 1303, professed in the priory of Sempringham, where nuns and monks fulfilled in one house a common vow. Afterwards he was removed to other Lincolnshire priories of the same order at Brimwake and Sixhill. Handlynge Synne" is his translation of the French words, "Manuel des Péchés," forming the title of a book in French verse ascribed to Bishop Grosseteste, but really written in French by another Englishman, William of Waddington, a Yorkshire town two or three miles from Clitheroe. Of this book Robert of Brunne made a free amplified translation into English verse for the edification of the common people at their games and festivals. He omitted what he thought dull in his original, and added new stories; the purpose of the work being to give religious instruction in the form of moral anecdotes or tales on the subject of the Ten Commandments, the seven deadly sins, sacrilege, the seven sacraments, and the twelve graces of thrift. Some years afterwards, between 1327 and 1338, Robert of, Brunne, then living in the house of Sixhill, made, at the request of his prior, Robert of Malton, a popular translation into English verse of the French rhymning Chronicle of Peter Langtoft. It was begun at the time of the death of Edward II., written in the first years of Edward III., and designed, like the " Handlynge Synne," for wholesome recreation of the people at their merry meetings, because it became all Englishmen to know the history of their own land.

If it be added that at this time, and throughout the fourteenth century, there was a continual reproduction in English verse of the most famous among the French Metrical Romances, we may advance the narrative at once beyond the barren time of Edward II., with a glance at the earlier part of the career of Richard de Bury.

41. Richard Aungervyle was born in the year 1281, at Bury St. Edmund's, in Suffolk, and has therefore usually been called, from his birthplace, Richard de Bury. His father was a Norman knight, who died in middle life, and left him to the care of his maternal uncles, who sent him to continue his studies at Oxford. There he distinguished himself so much by his acquire

ments that he was appointed tutor to Prince Edward, afterwards King Edward III. In that office Richard of Bury preserved at court, for some time, a discreet silence between conflicting parties, while he won the hearty goodwill of his pupil. In 1325, when Queen Isabel betook herself to Paris, Richard of Bury happened to be serving Edward II. as his treasurer, in Guienne. The time was now come for safe and energetic action in his pupil's interest. Richard Aungervyle at once gave up to the queen, for advancement of her cause, the money which he had collected in Guienne for Edward II. Edward's lieutenant in Guienne sent a troop of lancers to arrest the disloyal treasurer, who was pursued by them to the very gates of Paris, where he took refuge with the Franciscans. In September, 1326, Queen Isabel and her son landed in Suffolk with an army. Their declared object was the removal of the king's favourite Hugh de Spenser. Lancastrians and royalists, therefore, alike flocked to their standard; but the result of the movement was the deposition of King Edward II. by the next Parliament that met; and thus, in January, 1327, the prince whom Richard Aungervyle had sedulously served, became, early in his fifteenth year, King Edward III. Eight months later, the deposed king was murdered in Berkeley Castle by two of his keepers, his son ruling at that time under the control of Isabel and Mortimer. Three years later, in 1330, Mortimer was impeached and hanged as a traitor, and Edward III. was king, free from dictation.

CHAPTER IV.

CHAUCER AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES.

1. EDWARD III., aged fifteen, came to his throne in the year 1327. Geoffrey Chaucer was born in the year 1328. Some think that the date of his birth should be placed about eleven years later, for a reason that will presently appear. Other men of great mark were Chaucer's contemporaries, differing little from him in age: John Gower, William Langlande, author of "The Vision of Piers Plowman," and John Wiclif.

In their young days, Richard of Bury rose to the height of his good fortune, and produced a Latin treatise on the love of