The following have two plurals with different significations which may be found in a dictionary. Brother, brethren, brothers. Die, dice, dies. Genius, genii, geniuses. Index, indices, indexes. Medium, media, mediums. 66 Pea, peas, pease. Penny, pennies, pence. Phalanx, phalanges, phalanxes. Vortex, vortices, vortexes. (3) When a sentence with one verb has two or more subjects, these taken together are called the Compound Subject, as in this sentence: The rose and the lily are beautiful flowers." When the words denote different things, and are connected by and, as in the example, the verb should be plural. When the words denote the same thing, or are connected by or, the verb should be singular; as, "The Secretary and Treasurer is a trustworthy man." "The lily or the rose is a beautiful object." But, "The Secretary and the Treasurer [two different persons, as shown by the repetition of the article 'the'] are trustworthy men." (4) When the same verb has more than one subject of differ ent persons or numbers, it agrees with the most prominent in thought; as, "He, and not you, is wrong." Here the real subject is "he," "you" being the subject of a verb understood in the elliptical sentence thrown between the real subject and its verb. When there is no special prominence, the verb agreea with its nearest subject; as, Whether he or I am prepared." (2) Distinguish between the past tense and past participle of strong verbs. No mistake is more common than the confusion of these parts of the verb, so frequently the same, and yet in many instances different. Thus, we often hear, "He would have went," forHe would have gone." "He had broke," for 'He had broken.” Very close attention should be given to the so-called strong or irregular verbs of our language. Lists are printed in most grammars, and the principal parts are given under the form for the present tense in the dictionaries. It would be well for the teacher to require the principal parts of the most irregular of these verbs, as an exercise. (3) Distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs. The verbs lie and lay, sit and set, rise and raise are often confounded. We lie down, sit on a chair, and rise from our seat. We lay down the book, set a chair aside, and raise the window. An Intransitive verb takes no object, as in the examples above. A Transitive verb takes an object. The three verbs mentioned above are so frequently misused, that their principal parts should be committed to memory. They are: INTRANSITIVE. Lie, lay, lain. Rise, rose, risen. Sit, sat, sat. TRANSITIVE. Lay, laid, laid. Raise, raised, raised. Set, set set. (4) Distinguish between the use of Shall and Will. Shall is used, in direct statement. with the first person, to express a simple future action; as, "I shall go to town;" with the second and third persons, to express a determination; as, "You shall go to town." "He shall go to town." Will is used, in di "You rect statement, with the first person, to express deternination; as, "I will go to town;" with the second and third, to express simple future action; as, will go to town." "He will go to town." Should and would are used in a similar manner. This distinction is commonly disregarded in the Southern and Western States, but is insisted upon by all who aim to use the best English. The consequences of confounding the two words are amusingly illustrated by the story of the Frenchman, who, having fallen into the water, cried out in terror, "I will drown, and nobody shall help me." The origin of these words is as follows: Shall (from the Anglo-Saxon sculan, to be obliged) implies an obligation, and means, radically, ought. Will (from the Anglo-Saxon willan, to determine) implies a determination. "I shall" is, therefore, equivalent to "I ought, and so must;" "You shall," to "You ought, and so "You purpose," etc. I will," to "I purpose;" must; You will," to (5) Distinguish between the declarative and the contingent use of the verb. Statements which are intended to express belief, even though conditional, should be made in the declarative form; as, "If this man is innocent, [and I mean to imply that he is] he ought to be liberated." Statements which are intended to express doubt, ought to be made in the contingent form; as, "If this man be innocent, [and I do not mean to imply that he is or is not] he ought to be liberated." The words "declarative" and "contingent are here used to express what many grammarians would convey by the words" indicative" and "subjunctive." The distinction noted is, unfortunately, less regarded than formerly. (6) Distinguish between the nominative and the objective case. The pronouns are the only words which retain the ancient distinctive case-ending for the objective. Special care is necessary to use the objective form (1) as the object of a verb, and (2) after prepositions; as, "The man whom you sent; let you and me; they said to him and me." Not, "The man who you sent; let you and I; they said to he and I.” (7) Distinguish between the use of who, which and that. Who refers only to persons; which, only to things; that, to either persons or things. Owing to the common character of that, it is to be preferred to who or which in the following cases: (1) To avoid ambiguity; as, "The windows which I saw, had shutters that opened on the inside." (2) When both persons and things are included in the antecedent; as, The ladies and music that enlivened the scene." (3) When the relative is very closely connected with its antecedent by ellipsis; as, "The first time that [in which] I met him." (4) When a clause is restrictive; as, “The plans of life that men form in hope often fail." Here, if which were used, the sense would be different, the clause being no longer restrictive; as, "The plans of life which men form in hope often fail." 66 (8) Distinguish between the comparative and the superlative degree of adjectives. The common errors are (1) Using the double comparative and superlative; as, "These are much more preferable." "The 3. most universal motive to business is gain." (2) Using the superlative when only two are compared; as, "His is the easiest manner of the two." (3) Comparing objects which belong to wholly dissimilar classes; as, "There is no easier life than a preacher." (4) Including objects in a class to which they do not belong; as, "The fairest of her daughters, Eve." (5) Excluding an object from a class to which it does belong; as, "Cæsar was braver than any ancient warrior." Attention should be given to the fact that some adjectives are superlative in sense, and do not admit of comparison; as, ultimate, supreme, extreme. Others, as superior, posterior, prior, are properly comparative. Still we have “more perfect” and even "most perfect" in good writers. Such anomalous forms are to be explained as indicating the highest approximation to that which is absolutely unattainable. A "most perfect form means the nearest possible approach to perfection. Such expressions should not be encouraged. The tendency of the best writers in comparing adjectives is to form the comparative and superlative of monosyllables by adding -er and -est to the positive; as, wise, wiser, wisest. Poly. syllables are generally compared by using more and most; as, eloquent, more eloquent, most eloquent. (9) Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs. These are often confounded (1) by using an adjective for an adverb; as, "He behaved himself conformable to that blessed example;" (2) by using an adverb for en adjective; as, "She looks beautifully." The distinction between the instances requiring an adjective and those requiring an adverb, is not clearly drawn by gramarians. Remember that when the intention is to qualify the verb, an adverb should be used; when to qualify the noun, an adjective. Thus, the word feel is used in both an active and a neuter sense; as, “I feel [i. e. exercise my power of feeling] |