LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 1. Diagrammatic representation of brain nerves in connection FIG. 2. FIG. 3. The straight hand Straight hand with thumb drooped 4. The Nervous hand The Feeble or Weak hand The Energetic hand The Convulsive hand IO. The hand in fright 10*. Specimens of leaves CHAPTER I. NATURE'S METHODS; THE CHILD A PART OF NATURE'S WORK. THE child we submit to educational processes is a living being, a part of Nature's work, and to understand him thoroughly we must study the child in conjunction with what is known of other living beings. The object of education and training is to bring the Purpose of child into harmony with his surroundings, the home and education. the school, in order that in future years he may live harmoniously with whatever circumstances may surround him we want early to impress him in such a way that in the future his strength, development and character may be manly. things. A child is, no doubt, very different from the young The child of all lower living beings, but in many points there is a with other compared uniformity in the methods of nature, and in the methods living of describing action in all living things. We shall commence by glancing at methods of growth and vital action in the lower groups of organic beings; in these comparatively simple structures we shall study the methods, or as they are often called "Laws of Nature", Laws of and subsequently apply such knowledge to the study of children, as regards growth, development and mental functions. Further, if we want to train the child into a condition of harmony with Nature, we must know all we Nature. Nature's work. The body. A proposi living things. Cause and effect. can of that universal work of Nature of which the child is a part that we may aid Nature's work and never thwart it. It is not here intended to discuss man's place in Nature, but we must study man among Nature's works. The body of man is a living thing, one among many living things, influenced and nourished by supplies of food, and stimulated by such forces as heat, light, sound, touch, &c. One general plan seems to run through the whole series, and certain laws or generalisations appear to apply to all alike, though in different degrees. Our present concern in glancing at the circles of organic life, is to gain any knowledge possibly bearing upon our understanding of growth, action and mental function, or, as we may say, the processes of nutrition in the bodies and brains of children. Let me state a proposition which I have dwelt upon largely elsewhere, one that appears to me of primary importance in the scientific study of methods of cultivating the powers of children. "All vital phenomena must take place in a living body, and their occurrence implies not only nutritive supply, but also stimulation by forces from without." To speak of a child as a part of Nature's work is to make analogies between him and other living things: in making such analogies the greatest care must always be taken as regards definition, and logical inferences. To be strictly accurate it is necessary to define what we compare, and to state the characters between which comparisons are to be made. It is very common to speak of cause and effect, but it seems to me that in the complex problems that will come under our notice, it will be better to simply note the antecedents of our facts rather than to speak of them necessarily as causes. Nature At some points in our work we shall have to dwell on our guide. certain methods of observation, thought, argument and logic. Looking steadily at the works of Nature, compelling ourselves to see what is before us, trying to distinguish what we see from what we infer such is good practice for the mental powers. In Lecture III. we shall try to describe the methods of brain action, as they produce the expression of Mind. If you will follow my methods of describing some simple growing things, it will be easier for me to explain the more complex phenomena taking place among brain cells. move If a pea seed be placed on damp moss and kept in A growing seed, its the dark at a sufficient temperature, the access of air being free, it soon begins to sprout. The seed swells, ments. growth commences, and protrusion of the radicle follows. Later on, the covering of the seed splits and the embryo stem rises into the air, bearing a delicate tuft of leaves. It has been shewn by Sachs, and by Charles Darwin, that all parts of the plant move constantly, thus constantly binding both the root and the apex of the stem in more or less circular tracts. This spontaneous movement is called circumnutation. The movements of the apex of a growing stem were carefully traced by Charles Darwin; the apex moved in a more or less elliptical curve, with many zigzags. This movement results from the unequal state of congestion of the vegetable cells, the side of the stem on which for the time the turgescence is greater being temporarily the convex side, and it has been shewn that this turgescence may be followed by permanent growth. Darwin, in his researches, has shewn that apparently every growing part of every plant is continually circumnutating, though often on a small scale. "Even the stems of seedlings, ous move ment. Spontane before they have broken through the ground, as well as their buried radicles, circumnutate, as far as the pressure of the surrounding earth permits. In this universally present movement, we have the basis, or ground work for the acquirement, according to the requirements of the plant, of the most diversified movements." Thus the movements of the stems of twining plants, and the tendrils of climbers, result from a mere increase of the amplitude of the ordinary movements of circumnutation. The movements of the so-called sleep of plants, the movements of various organs towards the light, are all modified forms of circumnutation. Thus there are always movements in progress, and external stimuli largely control their amplitude and direction. Young plants move much. In the growth of plants, especially while they are young, it is the rule for, first one side, and then another of a member, to grow more rapidly than the rest, curvatures being thus caused, the convexity of which always indicates the side that is at the time growing most rapidly. If another side then grows more rapidly, it becomes convex, and the curvature changes its direction. These curvatures are caused by the unequal growth of different sides of an organ, and have been called by Sachs "Nutations." These nutations occur most evidently when growth is very rapid. Very common is it to find the apex of the erect stems above the curved growing part, to move round in a circle or ellipse, the region of most active growth moving gradually; this Sachs terms "revolving nutation." As regards the stem of a plant which happens to be bent towards the north, it will gradually bend more and more towards the east till it faces the east, then towards the south. When, in place of looking at the results of the movement of the apex of the radicle of the pea plant, as |