the steel-clad knights and their warlike zealous in the cause of humanity; but followers, had only the effect of aggravat- their hands were tied, to a great extent, ing the condition of the oppressed peas- by the original treaty which ceded the ants. Many severe regulations were in- provinces to Poland, in which the preser troduced from time to time, by way of vation of all their rights and privileges guarding against future revolts; the Ger- was guaranteed to the nobles. Nevertheman lords gradually began to exercise an less, something they were able to effect, inquisitorial power over the domestic re- by numerous manumissions, and by an lations of the peasant; and as the latter improved treatment of the people attachwas utterly defenceless, having neither ed to the crown lands. Stephan Bathory temporal nor spiritual redress against a had it in contemplation to deprive the notyranny strengthened by military organi- bles of the power of inflicting corporal zation and backed by the thunders of the punishment. He was desirous of substichurch, he descended gradually deeper tuting fines for the cruel flagellations to and deeper in the social scale, till he sank which recourse was had so often and so to one, even lower, if possible, than that capriciously; but his humane design was held by the negro slave in the southern defeated by the clamour of the peasants states of North America. The efforts themselves, who seem to have stood less made to soften this state of bondage are in dread of the stick than of pecuniary of nearly as old a date as the bondage it- amercement. They were willing to conself. Already, in the thirteenth century, tinue to bear the ills they had, rather than we find papal ordinances enjoining a more fly to others they knew not of. Bathory humane treatment of the peasantry, "in conceived the idea of uniting the nobility order that their condition as Christians themselves in a plan for the improvement may not be worse than it was when they of the condition of their peasants, but afwere still servants of the devil." The ter his death the benevolent scheme slumconquerors were more than once threat- bered for a while, till it was taken up ened by the pope with the loss of their again when the country fell into the powprivileges, "if they persisted in imposing er of the Swedes. Charles XI. worked burdens on the Lettes, and in reducing out the idea into a law project, which, howthem to servitude ;" and at a later period, ever, proceeded no farther, till under the those who constrained their vassals to Russians the project assumed a legislative marriage were menaced with excommuni- reality. One step towards the desirable cation. The clergy sought at the same goal has at length been made, but much, time to lighten the load of the peasantry, very much, remains to be done. The Liby increasing the number of holidays, on vonian peasant is no longer indeed by law which no forced labour was to be exact- a slave, but his condition is still a disgrace ed. The extent to which oppression was to civilisation.

carried may be judged from an ordinance, Under the Swedes, the administration which, from its having been several times of criminal justice was first taken from renewed, would not appear to have been the nobility, and assigned to magistrates very closely observed, namely, that no appointed by the government, and these peasant should be sentenced to death by magistrates were directed to travel through his lord, except in the presence, not only the country, and listen to the grievances of certain judicial officers belonging to of the people By the establishment of that and some adjoining estate, but also public schools, and of the university of of the elders among the people themselves. Dorpat, Gustavus Adolphus necessarily The pious and valiant knights themselves, lightened the condition of the peasants by shamed no doubt by the conduct of some humanizing their lords, and had it not of their own body, enacted statutes en- been for his premature death, his benevojoining a milder treatment of the natives, lent plans would probably have been carbut these statutes are couched in terms ried out to a much greater extent. The much too general to have been suscepti- successors of Gustavus Adolphus perseble of a practical application. vered in their efforts at reform, and Charles

It was not till after the dissolution of XI., there is every reason to believe, would, the order, and the occupation of the coun- if he had lived long enough, have brought try by foreign powers, that the remon- about the emancipation of the Livonian strances in favour of the oppressed peas- serfs; but the wars in which, under Charles ants began to be couched in a more ener- XII., the Baltic provinces were constant. getic tone. The kings of Poland, particu. ly involved, effaced every vestige of the larly Stephan Bathory, showed themselves improvements that had so laboriously been

effected, and when the provinces passed | Petersburg, to inquire into the matter, under the Russian sceptre, it was so much and to suggest such remedies as might be the interest of Peter the Great to concili- thought practicable. It was not, howate the nobility, that no attempt was made ever, till 1817, that the great scheme of to interfere with them in the administra- emancipation was matured, and as only tion of their estates; so that under him a certain number (one-fourteenth) of the and his immediate successors everything peasants were to be annually emancipatreturned pretty nearly to the state in ed, it was only in 1831 that the last serfs which it had been during the worst of became nominally free labourers in the times. The Lettes and Esthonians were Baltic provinces. It must not, however, prevented from attending the schools es- be supposed that the present condition of tablished by the Swedes, the nobility re- a Livonian freeman bears any analogy to sumed the exercise of criminal justice on that of an agricultural labourer in France their own estates, and such was the com- or England. The peasant has acquired plete humiliation of the peasants in con- the right of leaving the estate on which sequence of the devastations of war and he was born, and of wandering whitherpestilence, that even the servile insurrec- soever he pleases, on giving six months' tions which had been of so frequent oc- notice of such intention to his lord; but currence in the earlier history of Livonia, this liberty is accompanied by the drawceased during the greater part of the back, that the lord can, by a similar noeighteenth century. It was only when tice, compel the peasant to leave his nathe impetus given to all Europe by the tive place, which was not formerly the first events of the French revolution be- case. There is no likelihood that any gan to extend itself to the borders of the Baltic, that the peasants, driven to despair, or excited by the spirit of the time, rose against their tyrants, and it became necessary to make a great military display before the insurgents could be put down again.

but a very severe landlord will be abandoned by his peasants, who have every inducement to remain with their friends and relatives, and even where the peasant expresses a wish to remove, the owner of the estate has a thousand means in his power of preventing the realization of The revolt had been quelled, but not the design. There are few persons that without a fearful waste of human life; do not require occasional assistance, in and the nobility, of their own accord, now the way of seed, corn, timber for the reapplied themselves earnestly to the con- pair of their cottages, &c.; so that when sideration of the just grievances of their a man, whom it is at all desirable to revassals. While the convention was sit- tain, attempts to leave the estate, a heavy ting at Paris, the assembled nobility at bill can easily be made out against him, Riga were deliberating on the extent to and the claim, which it would be difficult which it might be prudent to carry their for him to dispute, must be satisfied becontemplated reforms; but the excesses fore he can depart. On the other hand, that shortly afterwards followed in Paris the landlord, having now the power of terrified the noble reformers, and the nine- relieving himself of every peasant whom teenth century arrived before any step had he does not think it worth while to retain really been taken towards the improve- on the land, may often make the poor ment so much needed and so diligently discussed.

man's liberty an instrument of great oppression to him. The Lettish peasants, In 1802 another insurrection took place accordingly, are often heard to complain under a leader known by the name of of the operation of the new law. They "Poor Conrad," whose achievements ob- have lost all that claim on the kindness of tained for him the denomination of the their lords which they formerly might Lettish Bonaparte. His followers were prefer. They were wont to call the soon put down by the artillery of the owner of the estate their father, however Russians; but the attention of the Empe ill he might often execute his parental ror Alexander, who had just succeeded to duties; but now," they say, we have the throne, was thus called, at the com- lost our father, and kept our lord." When mencement of his reign, to the wretched the peasant now attempts to appeal to the condition of the Livonian and Esthonian kindness of his landlord, he is often met peasantry; and finding that the delibera- by the remark, " Remember, you are not tions at Riga led to no result, he deter- my children now."

mined to take the affair into his own Nor can the peasant be said to have hands, and appointed a commission at St. really become a free labourer, The cus

t

toms of 1817 were adopted as a guide in care of Bergmann, who soon found himdrawing up for each estate what is called self at the head of a normal school for a Gehorchstab lle, in which the amount of the education of Lettish schoolmasters. labour, which each man should be bound Since then, Mr. Wolter has induced the to render to his landlord, was defined Ritterschaft of Courland to vote funds for with precision. On each estate a tribu- the permanent establishment of a seminal (Gemeindegericht) was instituted to nary for the education of teachers, which protect the interests of the tenants; but was opened in 1840, and to which the it is of course next to impossible to pre- anxious hopes are turned of all who invent this court of justice, though com- terest themselves in the regeneration of posed of individuals chosen from among the Lettish race. the tenantry themselves, from being en- As the social improvement of the peotirely dependent on the landlord. Before ple advances, the distinction of races will the peasant can really become a freeman, in a great measure disappear, and the the right of acquiring landed property Lettes and Esthonians will become more must be conceded to him; but of such a and more Germanized. The young teachconcession there does not at present ap- ers educated at the seminary will contripear the most remote prospect; such a bute to this gradual change. The native thing even as a limited lease to a peasant, dialects are too barbarous, or at least are of the cottage he lives in, is a thing un- deemed so, to become a fitting medium heard of. The social condition of other for the instruction of the people. In the provinces of Russia is opposed to any improved village-schools, accordingly, very sweeping changes in this portion of German will be the only language taught; the empire, and a general improvement and as German is the language of the in the relations between the peasants and higher and middle classes, the peasant their lords throughout the dominions of will be naturally pleased to see his chilthe czar, must precede any further ad- dren acquiring it. A circumstance ocvance of the Livonian or Esthonian to- curred a few years ago, that will contriwards freedom. Alexander did intend to bute to this Germanization. The governextend his Livonian reform to Lithuania, ment commanded that every Lette and but the scheme never ripened. It is in Esthonian should assume a family name. Poland, probably, that the next attempt Surnames till then had been unknown will be made to ameliorate the condition among them, and a peasant was usually of the peasantry, with a view to provide a check on the power of the Polish nobility.

known only by his baptismal name and that of the village he lived in. Thus, John living at Kinte, was called Kinte's John; With all its drawbacks, the modicum and if there were a number of Johns in of freedom conceded to the Lettes has the same place, they became known by not failed to bear blessed fruit. The some personal or characteristic pecunumber of schools has everywhere in- liarity, as, "Tal! John," "Fat John," creased, and nearly everywhere have the "Squinting John," "Lying John," "Good means of instruction been placed within John," &c. As gleba adscripti, such apthe reach of the rising generation. A pellations were quite sufficient; but when, clergyman of the name of Wolter is in consequence of their manumission, named as the individual who imparted the many of the peasants wandered away to first great impulse to the system of pop- the towns, the want of names was often ular education, that has of late years felt as a serious inconvenience, and an made such astonishing progress through order was therefore issued, directing out the three provinces. This gentleman every one to provide himself with so nediscovered promising talents in a young cessary a distinction. The poor people peasant of the name of Bergmann, and were in many places grievously puzzled had him sent to Prussia to qualify him by the task so unexpectedly imposed for a teacher. On his return, Bergmann, upon them. Some contented themselves who fully justified the good opinion of by permanently adopting the name of his patron, was furnished with all the ne- their village; but, in most instances, the cessary means for organizing a model German landlord was entreated to relieve school, which soon acquired a well-merit- his tenants of the embarrassment of the ed reputation throughout the country. choice; and some thousands of Lettish Mr. Wolter's philanthropic example met peasants were provided off-hand with the with imitators. Many benevolent land-names most current in Germany, such as lords placed young peasants under the Krause, Müller, Meyer, Bergmann, &c.

These new appellations are indeed but heavy duties imposed upon every article little used among themselves, except in of commerce. The provinces were to their official relations with the officers of have been exonerated from the duty of the government; and many a peasant furnishing recruits to the Russian army; finds it difficult, on the spur of the mo- but this is a privilege that has long ceased ment, when questioned on the subject, tc to exist. The Empress Catherine, indeed, remember his own family name. The would have swept away the last vestige of authoress of the "Letters from the Bal- a distinction between the German protic" gives a humorous account of the vinces and the rest of the empire; but difficulty which many of the gentry ex- Paul repealed the ordinances of his moperienced in finding names to satisfy the ther, and no attempt has since been made people on their estates. Many wished to by a Russian sovereign to imitate the adopt the names of their landlords; but treachery of Catherine. The German the aristocratic pride of the old German nobles forbade such a profanation.

laws continue in force; and the Russian code has little or no influence in Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland.

We have hitherto spoken of the three German provinces; but, in point of fact, The nobles of Esthonia and Livonia there were originally four provinces. In- are divided into three Ritterschaften, the germanland, when conquered by Peter islands of Oesel, Dago, &c., having a Ritthe Great, was as much German as Livo- terschaft or parliament of their own. nia; but the privileges and institutions of Each Ritterschaft meets once every three Livonia and Esthonia were secured first years, at Riga, Reval, or Arensburg. The by the capitulation of Riga, and after-questions which they are allowed to diswards more solemnly by the peace of cuss relate to internal improvements, the Nystadt. Ingermanland, on the contrary, regulation of schools, the appointment to was Peter's by right of conquest; it came a number of public offices, the propriety unconditionally into his possession, and of petitioning the emperor, and the eleche treated it without the least reserve, tion or admission of new members to the distributing many of the lands among his Ritterschaft. The last is, perhaps, that of Russian favourites, thus preparing for that their privileges to which they attach the Russification of the province which has highest importance; for, by admitting a since taken place. The very names of stranger, they confer on him the rights of the estates were changed, the German nobility, without which no one is compeinstitutions were abolished, and Russian tent to purchase an estate within the prosubstituted. The German proprietors vince. disappeared more and more; and at pre- The more value the Germans of Russia sent the very name of Ingermanland has attach to their institutions, the greater is vanished from the map, the whole pro- their constant anxiety lest those instituvince having been absorbed in the Rus- tions should, sooner or later, be swampsian government of St. Petersburg. The ed by the constantly encroaching elewhole political existence of the three re- ments of a Russian population. We have maining provinces now reposes on the already described the formation of the capitulation of Riga and the peace of Russian suburbs round some of the cities; Nystadt, without which Livonia and Es- nor must it be supposed that the interior thonia would long since have sunk into of the provinces has remained entirely the condition to which Ingermanland may free from the admixture of Russian elebe said to have been degraded. By the ments. Nothing contributes more to terms of those two great charters of Ger- this than the Russian law on the submanism in Russia, the cities were secured, ject of mixed marriages. No attempt is as we have stated, in the enjoyment of made by the government to constrain the all their old corporation laws, and in the conscience of its protestant or catholic use of their language on all official occa- subjects, and the Greek church has never sions, and the provinces were allowed to been distinguished by any remarkable continue under the administration of their zeal to gain over proselytes; but the local parliaments, in which every posses- Greek church is extremely jealous and sor of a noble estate has a seat and a watchful in providing against the defecvote. Some of the stipulations of the tion of any of its members, or of the treaty have been set aside. By the peace children of any of its members. The of Nystadt, the advantages of a free trade children of a father or of a mother who were promised to the German provinces; has once received the communion accordbut this promise has been evaded, and ing to the rites of the Greek church, are

to establish the Russian language. Few of the Livonian nobles, few even of the merchants of Reval and Riga, are able to converse in Russian, and a Russian officer stationed in the Baltic provinces must be content to play the part of a mute in society, unless he has brought some knowledge of German with him.

the property of that church; and a pro- vinces disposed to study the national diatestant marrying a Russian must be pre- lect, there are no teachers at hand to inpared to bring up his children in the na- struct them. Hitherto, the emperor has tional faith. This law extends to the made little or no progress in his attempt Baltic provinces as to every other part of the empire; and in the enforcement of this law, the Russian church acts with the greatest rigour and intolerance. There are not many Livonian nobles who would not consider a marriage with a Russian lady as a misalliance; but the Russians have no such prejudice, and the civil and military officers stationed in the Baltic In the work, the title of which stands provinces are constantly on the look-out at the head of this article, there are some for German wives. The younger sons of interesting chapters on the ancient poetthe nobles look to the public service of ry and legends of the Lettes and EsthoRussia as the most promising road to for- nians; but to enter on this subject would tune and sometimes, when recalled to carry us beyond the limits within which the paternal estate by the death of their we must necessarily confine ourselves. seniors, or by any other cause, they re- On a future occasion we may take the turn with Russian wives. Each of these subject in hand, and it is one that very mixed marriages, if it have issue, lays the well deserves to be treated by itself. In foundation of a Russian and not of a Ger- the mean time we shall conclude our hasty man house; for the member of the na- sketch of the social condition of these intional church is necessarily a Russian, teresting provinces, by referring those and is looked on in no other light by his who are desirous of more detailed informaneighbours. In this way a number of tion. to the volumes of Mr. Kohl, who Rus-ian families have already become might serve as a model to all writers of domiciliated among the nobles of the Bal- books of travels. He studies the people tic provinces, and some of the noblest among whom he sojourns, and has the ta and oldest houses are already divided in- lent to communicate the result of his to the Russian and the German branch. studies in the most attractive manner posThe pride and jealousy of the Germans, sible. Nor can we conclude without once however, throw many impediments in the more expressing our obligations to the way of such an amalgamation; and the clever authoress of the "Letters from the Russian nobles, though they increase, Baltic," to whose amusing pages we have increase but slowly in numbers. The more than once had occasion to refer in superiority which the old Livonian ar- the progress of the present article.

rogates to himself over the upstart Russian, and over the Russianized German, has, moreover, the effect of driving the latter out of the provinces. The noble is thought to have lost caste by a marriage with a Russian; and feeling this, he mostly sells his paternal estates, and removes with his family to one of the gov. ernments of the interior.

ART. III.-Correspondance inédite de Henry IV., Roi de France et de Navarre, avec Maurice-le-Savant, Landgrave de Hesse; accompagnée de notes et éclaircissemens historiques, par M. DE ROMMEL, Directeur des Archives de l'Etat et de la Bibliothèque publique à Cassel, &c. Hambourg: Frederic Perthes. Paris: Jules Renouard & Co. 1840.

Another source of uneasiness to the German population is the regulation by which of late years it has been required that all public officers, teachers at public schools, and all clergymen, should make themselves acquainted with the Russian language. This they are required to do, THE name of Henri IV., king of France but no step has yet been taken to enforce and Navarre, awakens in the mind a train the law, which is likely to remain a dead of the most varied associations. He was letter for many years to come. The last in every respect no ordinary man, and the ukase on this subject fixes the 16th of De- incidents of his eventful life were such as cember, 1846, as the day on which every do not befall ordinary men; accordingly public man is to know Russian ; but even every circumstance connected with him were the good people of the Baltic pro-is full of the deepest interest. Remarka