church of St. Martin's priory. We see here the curious steam-carriage of the mechanician Cugnot, and the fine statue of Denis Papin by M. Aimé Millot, the bronze duplicate of which was inaugurated at Blois some weeks ago. Besides the machinery which has long been at work in this gallery, the new administration of the Conservatoire is endeavouring to show visitors all the new and interesting apparatus used in the great Parisian industries. More than 3000 visitors witness every Sunday these experiments, very beautiful and very instructive for every one. Among the most notable apparatus are those connected with electrical phenomena. The beautiful experiments of M. Gaston Planté have obtained the greatest success, as also those relating to the transmission of power to a distance by electricity. The Conservatoire is thus becoming the museum of machinery in action. While the machinery is thus at work in the great nave, other experiments are going on in the galleries. The great electrical machine throws off sparks in the physical hall, and projections by means of the oxyhydrogen light are made elsewhere by M. Molteni. Visitors show great interest in the Echo room, the Lavoisier room, in which is a great number of instruments used by the founder of modern chemistry, the Agricultural room, where are exhibited all the newest models of agricultural machinery. It is scarcely necessary to speak of the courses of lectures by eminent professors, many of whom are known beyond France; the gratuitous courses here and at the Sorbonne for 1880-81 comprise almost every branch of pure and applied science. The public library of more than 30,000 special works is freely placed at the disposal of workers.

Among the less known departments is the public service for testing the resistance of materials, very useful to architects, contractors, and builders. Any one may take advantage of it. It is sufficient to send to the Conservatoire specimens of stone, marble, pottery, metals, tubes, &c., which are crushed, broken, or bruised by special machinery, and the results accurately registered. The most powerful of these machines is a hydraulic press of 500,000 kilograms.

Such, in few words, is the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. By its collections, its public courses, its library, its eminently practical services, it may be regarded as one of the most valuable institutions of France.

NOTES

THE Faraday lecture will be delivered by Prof. Helmholtz in the theatre of the Royal Institution on Tuesday, April 5. The subject will be "The Modern Development of Faraday's Conception of Electricity." The lecture will be delivered in English.

PROF. HOLDEN, of the U.S. Naval Observatory, Washington, has published, through Scribner, a biography of Sir William Herschel. Prof. Holden is also publishing, through the Smithsonian Institute, a subject index and synopsis of the scientific writings of the great astronomer.

THE Kent's Cavern Committee, when presenting their final Report in August last to the British Association stated that, from the first day of the exploration in 1865 to its close in 1880, George Smerdon had been continually engaged on the work, and for nearly thirteen years had been the foreman; that during that period he had always discharged his duties in a most exemplary manner, and without the least misunderstanding with the superintendents; that he was nearly sixty years of age, and so crippled with chronic rheumatism-induced by working for so many years in the damp Cavern-as to be incapable of any ordinary labour, and that it was proposed to raise by subscription a fund sufficient to secure him a small annuity. The proposal was cordially received, and Mr. Pengelly was encouraged to carry it into effect. Several contributions have already been

received from Mr. G. Busk, Prof. W. B. Dawkins, Dr. John Evans, Mr. J. E. Lee, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., Mr. W. Pengelly, Mr. E. Vivian, M.A., and others. Further contributions to the "Smerdon Testimonial Fund" may be paid directly to Mr. W. Pengelly, Lamorna, Torquay, or to Messrs. Vivian, Kitson, and Co., Bankers, Torquay.

A MARBLE statue of Nicephore Niépce, the inventor of photography, is now being executed by the celebrated sculptor, M. Guillaume of Paris, and will be erected and unveiled in May next at Châlons-sur-Saône.

PROF. MASKA of Neutitschein writes that the excavations now going on in the Schipka Cave, near Stramberg (Moravia), have yielded some interesting results. Among the numerous remains of Post-Tertiary animals (such as mammoth, rhinoceros, urochs, horse, lion, hyæna) the jaw-bone of a supposed diluvial human being has been found. It was imbedded in the immediate vicinity of a place where carbonised animal bones, stone implements, and bone utensils were found. The jaw-bone, described as having belonged to a child of some eight years of age (according to the development of the teeth), is of very large, indeed of colossal dimensions.

THE director of French Lighthouses has sent to the Minister of Public Works a communication recommending the lighting, by electricity, of all the great lighthouses on the French coasts. It will involve an expenditure of several millions of francs, which will end in a large economy and an extension of the range of illumination. A system of steam-trumpets is also to be established in connection with these improved lighthouses.

WITH the January number the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science enters on the twenty-first volume of its second series. First published in 1853, under the editorship of Dr. Edwin Lankester and Mr. George Busk, it now appears under the editorship of Prof. E. Ray Lankester, assisted by Mr. F. M. Balfour, Mr. W. T. Thiselton Dyer, and Dr. E. Klein. Mr. William Archer has withdrawn from the editorial staff.

THE minutes of the Proceedings of the Dublin Microscopical Club, which since 1865 have been published in the Quarterly Magazine of Microscopical Science, will for the future, we understand, be published in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

WE understand that Mr. Richard Anderson, the author of the well-known work on Lightning Conductors, has nearly ready for publication a treatise—based on the "Instruction sur les Paratonnerres adoptée par l'Académie des Sciences" of France-to be entitled "Information about Lightning Conductors."

At its last session the French Parliament voted a grant of several millions of francs for the completion of an underground system of telegraphic wires connecting the principal cities with Paris.

SEVERAL electric railways are to be tried on the occasion of the forthcoming Electrical Exhibition at Paris. The most important will be built by Siemens Brothers, and will form consequently a prominent part of the British display. At the last sitting of the General Council of the Exhibition M. Georges Berger announced that a steam engine of 800 horse-power will be arranged for the working of the electric light, and the number of lamps in operation is estimated at 600. A number of these will be in the large hall, but a large proportion in the gardens, in the annexe, and in a series of saloons fitted up magnificently with tapestry-work by the Government. The annexe is to be the Pavillon de la Ville de Paris, which was one of the wonders of the 1878 Exhibition, and will be transported to the vicinity of the Palais de Champs Elysées.

IN connection with our recent note on the Young Men's Home Education Society, a lady in Cork sends us some information concerning the Minerva Club, whose head-quarters seem to be in that city, and which aims at enabling ladies to educate themselves at home. The regulations of the Club seem well adapted. for this purpose, and the programme includes natural science. The books recommended are all standard ones, and the exexaminers men of good standing in literature and science. The specimens of the examination papers sent us in geology and geography show that a high standard is aimed at. The honorary secretary of the Club is Mrs. W. S. Green, The Rectory, Carrigaline, Co. Cork.

In the course of dredging operations in the bed of the Limmat, at Zurich, some very interesting objects have been brought to

light, among others ancient coins (including fifty gold pieces of

Brabant), swords, and the skeleton of a stag of a species now extinct in Switzerland. The piers of a Roman bridge which once spanned the river have also been laid bare. All the finds are being placed in the Zurich Historical Museum.

A REPORT has reached Vienna, January 24, which has not yet been confirmed, of a fresh earthquake at Agram, attended with disastrous consequences. At Landeck (Tyrol) three shocks were noticed on January 10, at 9 p.m. The first one was the most violent, and the other two followed at intervals of five minutes. The earthquake which was felt at 5.15 p.m. on December 25, in Southern Russia, extended as far as Odessa and Kishineff in south-west, Tiraspol, Byeltzy, in Bessarabia, and the Ouman district of the province of Kieff in north-east; it was strong enough in the villages Leghezino and Vishnepolie of this district. At Molokishi, district of Balta, and at Byetzy, it was very strong.

A METEORIC stone fell at Wiener Neustadt a few days ago, near the telegraph office, and penetrated deeply into the gravelcovered road. The phenomenon was witnessed by several persons, who all declare that the meteor showed a brilliant light. Upon inspection a triangular hole was discovered of 5 centimetres width; the ground was frozen at the time. The meteoric stone. was excavated in the presence of Dr. Schober, director of the Wiener Neustadt High School. It weighs 375 grammes, is triangular in shape, its exterior is crystalline, with curious blackish, greyish, and yellow-reddish patches. Here and there metallic parts give a brilliant lustre. Its specific weight is very high, its hardness about 9. An analysis is now being made.

THE second series of Evening Lectures delivered at the Royal College of Science, Dublin, has commenced with satisfactory entries. The classes have been voluntarily undertaken by the professors in order to afford a systematic course of study available to beginners and to those who are earning their livelihood in various avocations during the day. Artisans and others receiving weekly wages are admitted at half fees. The courses consist of from fifteen to twenty lectures in each of the following subjects: Biology, Dr. McNab; Physical Geography, Prof. O'Reilly; Geology and Mineralogy, Profs. Hull and O'Reilly; Chemistry, Prof. Hartley; Physics, Prof. Barrett; and Mathematics, Mr. Stewart, the Demonstrator in Physics. During the session of 1879-80 the numbers in attendance at the various classes were 336. In order to give assistance needful for the continuance of this course of instruction the Worshipful Company of Drapers have generously voted the sum of 100l. per annum for a period of three years. The earnestness, intelligence, and regularity of those attending the evening classes is remarkable, giving evidence of a hearty desire for sound and solid scientific instruction in Ireland, as well for the love of knowledge itself as for the purposes of technical information.

NEWS from Cairo states that to the north of Memphis, near Saggarah, two pyramids have been discovered which were con

structed by kings of the sixth dynasty, and the rooms and passages of which are covered with thousands of inscriptions. The discovery is said to be of the greatest scientific importance.

THE Prefect of the Seine has opened in Paris a public laboratory for the analysis of any substance used for food; the fees are very moderate, and vary from 5 francs to 20 francs, according to the difficulty in the determinations.

A MEDICAL gymnasium was opened on January 22 at Paris. It has been built in the Chausée d'Antin at an expense of 20,000l., by a public company. About seventy mechanical contrivances of different descriptions have been arranged in a series of rooms. The greater number of these are worked by a steam. engine, and all of them can be graduated by screws, so that the extent, duration, and velocity of motion can be regulated

according to the direction of the physicians..

THE electric steamer Pouyer-Quertier, belonging to MM. Siemens Brothers, has arrived at Havre, after having successfully repaired the French cable, which had been discovered to be faulty.

IN his last report to the Foreign Office H.M.'s Consul at. Shanghai points out that the Chinese are much more disposed to allow the opening of coal-mines than the construction of railways. Without referring to the work being done in Formosa, he mentions that operations are in progress under English engineers for the opening of coal-pits at Kaiping, near Tientsin, and near Nganking, the capital of the Nganhwuy province. Both districts have plenty of coal, but unfortunately no navigablewaterway; and for this reason the engineer of the Nganking coal-mines intends to remove to another locality near by, where there is an equal quantity of coal and better water-power. At Kaiping matters are worse, for the nearest navigable stream is at Lutai, forty miles away. To reach this it is expected that a railway may be constructed, but, as it can hardly be a commercial success, it would not much promote the cause of railway enterprise in general. The engineers find no difficulty at Kaiping in obtaining Chinese labour, but the English workmen sent there have not given satisfaction, and the Chinese are getting rid of them.

M. MAGITOT, a member of the Prehistoric. Congress which. met at Lisbon last autumn, reports on a. Portuguese Pompeii, which he had occasion to inspect while on a tour to the territory, of Tertiary Silex at Otta. The place is called Santarem and Citania. The latter is the general Portuguese name for ruins of ancient towns, which cover entire hills in the neighbourhood of Braga. The most important of these very old town-ruins is the: Citania di Briteiros, which occupies nearly a kilometre.square, and is supposed to be of Celtic origin. Circular walls, streets,, squares, large architectural monuments, and even a number of houses have retained their typical forms. For twenty centuries this Citania was buried below débris, soil, and a rich vegetation;; only a few years ago a zealous archaeologist, Senhor Sarmento, succeeded, by costly and troublesome efforts, in clearing away the covering of centuries and to lay open to the world an ancient city in which quite a primitive state of civilisation is apparents Its architecture and plastic ornamentation point to a somewhat advanced state of art and industry. Many stone monuments are covered with sculptures and inscriptions, which in their general: character recall those of India and China, which the wellknown Lyons archaeologist, M. Guimet, declares to be of a symbolic and religious character, similar to those found upon the oriental monuments. It is possible that this fact might be adduced as a proof that the tribes who built these Citanias had originally emigrated from Turan.

NEWS from Washington territory states that the volcano Mount Baker was in full eruption quite recently

WE have received the first number of the Revista of the Society of Instruction of Oporto. There are various papers bearing on education, and one by Mr. E. J. Johnston on the Phanerogamous Flora of Oporto. The number of English names on the list of this Society is remarkable; the first name among the Foundation Members is that of Isaac Newton, followed by W. C. and A. W. Tait; there are several Allens, a Johnston, several Kendalls and Coverleys, F. C. Rawes, Henrique Rumsey, a Grant, a Hastings, and an Archer. This no doubt indicates the close commercial relations between Oporto and England.

It is known that Leverrier, urged by growing infirmities and apprehending that he would not live to accomplish his great work on the theory of Saturn, left a part of his calculations uncompleted, convinced that this would exert no real influence on the total result. But M. Gaillot, the director of the Calculation Service of the Paris Observatory, felt it a duty to fill up the gap left by the late director of the observatory and to revise the whole of his work. We are happy to state that, as far as the revision has gone, the accuracy of the conclusions published by the great astronomer is demonstrated, and none of the neglected terms will exert any appreciable influence.

WE take the following from the Albury Banner (New South Wales) :-It has long been a matter of popular belief that the great kingfisher was an enemy of the snake, perpetually warring upon the tribe in general, and never happier than when dining on serpent au naturel. It is not often, however, that even persons habitually residing in the bush have so good an opportunity as that afforded a few days since to Mr. Christian Westen. dorff of Jindera, for observing the laughing jackass when in the act of bagging the game referred to. Mr. Westendorff was engaged with another man in clearing some land, and in the course of the day's operations it became necessary to shift a large log. For this purpose levers were applied to each end, and after some straining the log was rolled from its resting-place. The very moment it commenced to move a laughing jackass, which had hitherto been taking a deep but unobtrusive interest in the proceedings, made a swoop down from the limb of an adjacent tree, and seized a large snake which had been lying under the log. The snake was gripped by the back of the neck (if snakes can be said to have necks) and bɔrne away to the bird's previous perch, where the unfortunate reptile was banged against the bough until the body separated from the head and fell to the ground. The jackass then dropped the head, and seizing the body sailed away in triumph with his prize. Whether the bird had seen the snake go under the log and was watching for it to come forth again, or whether it knew by instinct that the reptile was there, is a question that may be left for naturalists to determine; but we are credibly informed that as soon as the log was shifted, and before Mr. Westendorff or his companion had any idea of a snake being in their neighbourhood, the jackass was down and had made good his seizure.

THE Russian Technical Society has created a special branch which will devote its attention to aëronautics, especially to the popularisation of all branches of aëronautics, to recent researches on this field, to the meteorology of the higher regions of the atmosphere, and to the study of the applications of aërostatics to military purposes.

WE note from the Deutsche Industrie-Zeitung that during 1879 some 140 tons of amber were obtained at the coast of the Baltic, of which the mine at Palmnicken yielded seventy-five tons, and the digging-engine at Schwarzort the remainder. About fifteen tons were gathered by nets and picked up on the Some 3000 people (including women and children) gain their living by gathering amber.

shore.

AT the end of 1880 the Berlin Electro-technical Union numbered no less than 1575 members, 1246 of whom are foreigners.

A NUMBER of Celtic tombs were recently discovered near Lichtenwald, on the frontier between Styria and Carniola, not far from Cilli. Several of them were opened, and numerous urns were found in them. A few objects of more interest have been

sent to the local museum at Cilli.

THE well-known Hungarian archaeologist, Herr Wilhelm Lipp, continues the excavations of the ancient burial-ground discovered by him at Kessthely. The cost is borne by the Budapest Archæological Society. These tombs are rich in bronze and iron objects dating from the fourth and fifth centuries.

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN BRORSEN'S COMET IN 1842.-In September, 1846, it was pointed out by Mr. Hind (Astron. Nach. No. 582) that the comet of short-period discovered by Brorsen at Kiel on February 26 preceding must have approached very near to the planet Jupiter about May 20, 1842, possibly within o'05 of the earth's mean distance, and it was surmised that an entire change of orbit might have been produced at that time. In 1857 D'Arrest examined this point more closely, applying the formulæ of the Mécanique Céleste to determine the elements prior to the encounter with the planet. His results were published in Astron. Nach. No. 1087. Adopting good elements for 1846, but without taking account of perturbations, since the comet left the sphere of activity of Jupiter after the near approach, he inferred that the closest proximity occurred May 20'6924 Berlin mean time, the distance between the two bodies being then o'05112; that for April 19'5 the inclination of the comet's orbit was 40° 51′, or 10° greater than in 1846, and that the perihelion distance was greater than 1'5, instead of o'65 at the time of Brorsen's discovery, and it was considered that the comet would not be visible when the radius-vector was much over unity; hence, perhaps, our ignorance of its existence before the year 1846. Thus the question has remained until within the last two years. Our object now is to record the results of a much more complete investigation of the effect of the comet's encounter with Jupiter, by Herr Harzer, forming the subject of an inaugural dissertation in the University of Leipsic in 1878. He adopts the definitive elements of Prof. Bruhns for 1846, with a small correction to the mean motion indicated by the observations at the comet's reappearance in 1868, and calculates backward with great care the perturbations of Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn to 1842, July 16 5, when the distance from Jupiter was 0305; the total perturbations in the interval 1846, February 25°5

1842, July 16.5 are as follows:-Mean anomaly, -1° 58′32′′-6; mean sidereal motion, + 4" 391; longitude of perihelion, +9′52′′8; ascending node, + 24′ 35′′4; inclination, + 1° 48′ 31′′4; angle of eccentricity, + 56′ 30′′o. From the ecliptical co-ordinates of the comet with respect to Jupiter at the latter date and the variations of these relative co-ordinates, the hyperbolic elements of the orbit about the planet are obtained and the perijove is found to have taken place May 27°28488 M.T. at Berlin, when the distance was o'054714. bolic elements are assumed to 1842, April 7'5, when the distance between comet and planet was o'30334, and the radius of the sphere of attraction o°27149. The elements are then again referred to the sun, and thus the following figures defining the comet's orbit before this near approach to Jupiter, result :— Epoch, 1842, April 7.5 Berlin M.T.

The hyper

III 50 20'6

103 42 12.8 1846.0 46 18 57'4

...

...

...

...

...

...

49 32 IO'O

686" 253 0'4756809 0'7151810

The only very striking difference from D'Arrest's figures, which were confessedly a rough approximation, is in the perihelion

distance, which, as will be seen, is found to be much smaller, indeed not one-half as great, by Herr Harzer.

The author of this very able dissertation remarks upon the similarity of the elements he has deduced for Brorsen's comet before the near approach to Jupiter, to those of the first comet of 1798, discovered by Messier on April 12 and observed by him till May 24; this comet was computed by Burckhardt and Olbers. Herr Harzer finds, however, that it is not probable Messier's observations will admit of an orbit widely different from a parabola. He considers there is reason to conclude that the orbit of 1842 was impressed upon the comet by a close approach to Jupiter in 1759-60, and that another change may be similarly produced in 1937, as hinted by D'Arrest.

HERSCHEL'S FIRST OBSERVATION OF URANUS.-We are now close upon the centenary of the discovery of Uranus on March 13, 1781. Perhaps some readers may be interested in the following examination of the first evening's measures of distance and angle of position from a small star, with which Herschel compared the planet till March 21. In his "Account of a Comet," for as such the planet was announced in a communication to the Royal Society read on April 26, he gives the distance from the small star "2' 48" by pretty exact estimation true to 20"," and the angle "o° o' by superficial estimation, liable to an error of 10° or 12°," this angle corresponding in our present system of double-star measures to 270°, or preceding on the parallel this distance and angle are for Ioh. 30m. at

Bath.

:

By Prof. Newcomb's pretty accurate "provisional theory," we find the place of Uranus for 1781, March 13, at Ioh. 30m. M.T. at Bath, or Ioh. 39m. zos. Greenwich M.T., to be as follows:-True R. A. 5h. 35m. 47°77s., true Decl. +23° 32′ 58′′*3, and the corrections to apparent place are -0°32s. and -0" 2; the log. distance of the planet from the earth being 1'27742. It is clear from this that Herschel's star, which he calls is No. 1576 in Rümker's Catalogue (the first impression of oh.-6h.), where it is estimated a tenth magnitude: Argelander in the Durchmusterung has 9'0. The mean place accurately

carried back to 1781°0 was—

R.A. 5h. 36m, o'85s. Decl. + 23° 32′ 3′′·7.

α,

For this date and hour we find, in the notation of the Nautical Almanac

· Log A. - 1′2709. Log B. +0'3473. Log C. +7'7110. Log D. -0.8971.

Whence the apparent place of the star was—

R.A. 5h. 36m. o'84s. Decl. + 23° 32′ 11′′·6. Consequently the calculated distance of planet from star is 3' 10"2, and the angle of position 284°2, agreeing as nearly with Herschel's estimates as under the circumstances can be expected. At his next observation on March 17 the distance by observation was 42′′; the computed distance 54".

GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES

THE last meeting of the Russian Geographical Society was very animated, owing to the presence of Prof. Nordenskjöld. The great hall of the Society was crowded, and the explorer of the northern seas was greeted with loud cheers. The president of the Society, M. Semenoff, opened the meeting with a speech of welcome in which he sketched the long series of expeditions undertaken from Europe to Siberia since the year 1553, when Willoughby directed his three ships to the White Sea, and paid for his undertaking with his life. Prof. Nordenskjöld replied in a short speech, referring to the expeditions which will start next spring for the exploration of the Siberian shores; and Prof. Lentz made a communication on Polar meteorological stations and on their importance for science.

ORENBURG was the first town which enjoyed the pleasure of hearing the story of Col. Prjevalsky's journey told by himself. On his passage through this town, on January 2, the traveller gave a lecture on the adventures of his journey to Tibet, which we have already told. From Orenburg M. Prjevalsky started to visit his relations at Smolensk, whence he proceeded to St. Petersburg, reaching it at the same time as his companions and his collections, which were at the beginning of January on their way from Orsk to Orenburg.

DR. LENZ, the German traveller who lately accomplished the

feat of reaching Timbuctoo from the north, has arrived at Bordeaux, and is expected at Berlin soon to give an account of his explorations.

THERE are at present sixty-five geographical Societies in the world. The oldest of these is that of Paris, founded 1821; there is also a Society of Commercial Geography at Paris, founded 1873. Besides these France has geographical societies at Lyons, Bordeaux,_ Marseilles, Montpellier, Rouen, Nancy, Bergerac, Périgueux, Rochefort, Mont-de-Marsan, Agen, Apinal, Rochelle, Douai, Dunkirk, St. Omer, Lille; and one is about to be founded at Bar-le-Duc. The Berlin Geographical Society was founded in 1828, besides which Germany has similar societies at Frankfort, Darmstadt, Leipsic, Dresden, Munich, Bremen, Halle, Hamburg, Friberg, Metz, Hanover; other societies are in formation at Halberstadt, Magdeburg, and_Jena. The London Geographical Society, the only one in England, was founded in 1830. The next oldest society (after Frankfort)_is that of Rio Janeiro, founded 1838; then Mexico, 1839; St. Petersburg, 1845; in Russia there are besides-societies at Tiflis, Irkutsk, Vilna, Orenburg, Omsk. The other societies are those of the Hague, 1851; New York, 1852; Vienna, 1856; Geneva, 1858; Rome, 1867; Buda-Pesth, 1872; Amsterdam, 1873; Bucharest, 1875; Lisbon, 1875; Madrid, Antwerp, Brussels, Copenhagen, Lima, all 1876; Stockholm and Quebec, 1877; St. Gall, Berne, Oran, 1878; Tokio, 1879; Buenos Ayres, Algiers, and Oporto, 1880.

THE Hamburg firm of C. Woermann has sent Mr. Hermann Soyaux to the French colony of Gaboon in order to try to cultivate the coffee-tree of Liberia at that place. Soyaux has now been at Gaboon for two years, and has there established the Scibomge farm, which is situated about a day's march inland from the Gaboon River, on the Awandu River, which flows in a north-easterly direction into the Bay of Corisco. He now employs some 100 negroes. Many thousand coffee-trees have been imported from Liberia, and have been planted, and experiments have also been made with sowing the beans, so that at the beginning of 1882 the first coffee-harvest is confidently expected. The Hamburg firm supports the undertaking in a most efficient manner by sending engines, implements, &c., and experiments are also pending to introduce and acclimatise horses and mules. Mr. Soyaux makes meteorological observations for the Leipsic Observatory and natural history collections for the Hamburg Museum.

IN the current number of Les Missions Catholiques we find appended to a letter from Mgr. Cluzel, the Apostolic Delegate in Persia, some notes on the Kurds, which are just now of considerable interest. These notes deal with the origin of the Kurds, their country, language, present condition, religion, manners and customs, &c.

THOUGH no doubt much geographical information respecting the Philippines may be obtained from Spanish works, there is but little readily accessible to the English reader. It may therefore be well to call attention to a useful résumé furnished by H.M.'s Consul at Manila in his commercial report for 1879. He gives some brief particulars respecting each of the twenty-one provinces into which the principal Island of Luzon is divided, and afterwards deals with some of the other chief islands. The interior of the Island of Mindoro, immediately south of Luzon, he tells us, is not explored, but is supposed to contain much mineral wealth. In the Visayan group much of the interior of Capt. Negros, Samar, and Paragua is likewise not explored. Pauli adds that the archipelago is believed to contain 1200 islands of all sizes. The report is accompanied by an outline map, on which the principal islands are shown, as well as the division of Luzon into provinces.

M. LUCEREAU, a member of the Paris Geographical Society, has been killed by natives on his exploring expedition in Eastern Africa. He had started from Aden in June last in order to reach the Upper Nile by crossing the territory inhabited by the Gallas Negroes.

THE Bulletin of the International Geographical Institute at Berne has with the new year begun a new series on a larger scale than the previous issue. In the first number the contents of previous issues are resumed, the chief novelty being a fine map of the South Polar regions, on linen, in connection with the proposed Italian expedition. We cannot yet see exactly what place this Bulletin fills in geographical journalism.

DEEP-SEA EXPLORATION1

THIS subject is one in which I have for many years taken much interest; and I will give you the result of my experience and studies. It is highly fascinating to all persons of ordinary intelligence, although they may not be naturalists. Our best poets have not disdained to sing its praises; one of them says,

"There is a magnet-like attraction in

"

These waters to the imaginative power That links the viewless with the visible, And pictures things unseen." Speculations of this kind were not unknown to the ancients. In the "Haleutica" of Oppian, written nearly seventeen centuries ago, it is stated that no one had found the bottom of the sea, and that the greatest depth ascertained by man was 300 fathoms, where Amphitrite had been seen. But this grand discovery does not seem to have satisfied the poetical philosopher and he enters into a long disquisition as to the many other wonderful things that may be concealed in the recesses of the boundless ocean, adding, nevertheless, what I will translate from the Greek :

;

"But men have little sense and strength." However, man has not degenerated in this kind of knowledge since the days of Oppian; for he has now not only explored the greatest depths of the sea, but has mapped out its main features with nearly as much accuracy as he has done with respect to the land.

It will be more convenient to divide the subject into separate heads, viz. :-(1) Historical; (2) Apparatus; (3) Fauna; (4) Food; (5) Light; (6) Temperature; (7) Depth; (8) Inequalities of the Sea-bottom; (9) Deposits; (10) Geological; (11) Incidental; (12) Concluding Remarks.

I hope you will not be frightened at the number of these heads. Some of them you will find to be exceedingly short.

1. Historical.—Sir Wyville Thomson's "Depths of the Sea" gives an excellent account of the origin and progress of deep-sea exploration up to a very recent period. To this work I would refer my audience, contenting myself with some supplemental remarks.

In 1868 commenced the systematic examination of the sea-bed at considerable depths in that part of the North Atlantic which surrounds the British Isles. I then took my yacht, the Osprey, for another excursion to Shetland, and dredged off the most northern point of our isles. The greatest depth which I attained was 170 fathoms, or 1020 feet, each fathom being 6 feet. This depth, strictly speaking, is beyond the line of soundings, viz. 100 fathoms and it may be a question whether the fauna of the sea-bed outside of that limit can be regarded as British, although adjacent to our coasts. If it be we ought to take the "medium filum aquæ (as the lawyers in the time of Coke called it), and extend the geographical limit of the British marine fauna halfway across to North America! But such boundaries are neither national nor rational. We cannot lay claim to so extensive a dominion. International boundaries, for the purpose of naval warfare or as defined by fishery treaties, are limited to a distance of three miles, irrespective of depth. Later in the same year (1868) Dr. Carpenter and Prof. Wyville Thomson explored, in H.M. surveying-vessel Lightning, the sea-bed lying between the Butt of Lewis and the Faroe Isles, and reached the depth of 550 fathoms. These tentative excursions showed that the sea-bed everywhere was full of life, not merely of a microscopic and uniform kind, and of a low degree of organisation, but of a considerable size, great variety, and a high degree of organisation. In the following year (1869) our Government placed a better vessel at the disposal of the Royal Society; and I undertook the first scientific cruise in H.M. surveying-ship Porcupine. This cruise was off the western coast of Ireland, and the greatest depth dredged was 1476 fathoms. The second cruise was undertaken by Prof. Wyville Thomson, and extended from the south of Ireland to what is probably the deepest part of the North Atlantic in the European seas. The greatest depth dredged by him was 2435 fathoms, or nearly three miles. The third cruise, under the charge of Dr. Carpenter, was in the same direction as the Lightning expedition, but embraced a larger area, including the Shetland Isles; the greatest depth was 867 fathoms. In the following year (1870) the Porcupine was again placed at the disposal of the Royal Society for further exploration. This expedition was divided into two cruises, North Atlantic and A Lecture by J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S.

Mediterranean. The former was assigned to me, and comprised the sea-bed lying between Falmouth and the Straits of Gibraltar, along the western coasts of Spain and Portugal. There were 38 dredging and sounding stations, at depths ranging from 81 to 1095 fathoms. The Mediterranean cruise was made by Dr. Carpenter, and extended round Sicily. There were 29 stations, at depths ranging from 51 to 1743 fathoms. Prof. Wyville Thomson was unfortunately prevented by illness from taking part in this year's expedition. In all these cruises an abundance as well as a great variety of marine life occurred at every depth.

The Lightning and Porcupine expeditions culminated in the celebrated voyage of H.M.S. Challenger round the world, which commenced on December 21, 1872, and ended on May 24, 1876, having thus occupied a period of three years and five months. During this expedition about 30,000 nautical miles were traversed, 504 soundings were taken, and 132 dredgings and 150 trawlings were made. The depths of soundings were from 25 to 4475, of dredgings from 4 to 3875, and of trawlings from 10 to 3050 fathoms. The greatest depth reached was five statute miles. The Americans have recorded a greater depth, viz. 5 miles, or 4620 fathoms. Even greater depths than this have been given; but they are not now considered reliable, by reason of the imperfect machinery which was formerly used for sounding.

The Proceedings of the Royal Society for 1873-1877 contain many "Preliminary Reports" by Sir Wyville Thomson and the other naturalists attached to the Challenger expedition; so that all the scientific world were from time to time kept informed of the progress and results of this great national undertaking.

During the last of our arctic voyages, in 1875, I had, through the influence and energy of the Royal Society, another opportunity of exploring a part of the North-Atlantic sea-bed which was not within the limits of the Challenger expedition; and I was intrusted with the scientific charge of the sounding and dredging conducted in H.M.S. Valorous between Bantry Bay and Hare Island in Davis Strait. This ship accompanied the Alert and Discovery on their way northwards. After a voyage of three months, which was rendered more eventful by a cyclonical storm and a partial shipwreck on the coast of Greenland, we succeeded in working sixteen stations, with depths of from 20 to 1785 fathoms. Here also, and even in the midst of icebergs, submarine life showed no diminution in number or extent.

To this short recital of our later expeditions I must not omit to add a notice of the valuable and suggestive researches which were accomplished under considerable difficulties by Dr. Wallich in H.M.S. Bulldog in 1860, while she was engaged in surveying the North-Atlantic sea-bed for the purpose of establishing tele graphic communication between this country and North America. The results of these researches were published in Dr. Wallich's important work, entitled "The North-Atlantic Sea-bed; conprising a Diary of the Voyage on board H.M.S. Bulldog in 1860, and observations on the presence of Animal Life, and the Formation and Nature of Organic Deposits at Great Depths in the Ocean." On the return voyage, about midway between Cape Farewell and Rockall, thirteen starfishes came up from a sounding of 1260 fathoms, "convulsively embracing a portion of the sounding-line which had been payed out in excess of the already ascertained depth, and rested for a sufficient period at the bottom to permit of their attaching themselves to it."

A short voyage in H.M.S. Shear water through the Mediterranean in 1871 enabled Dr. Carpenter to have some dredging between Sicily and the northern coast of Africa, on the Adventure and Skerki Banks. This dredging was by no means un productive; but the depths did not exceed 200 fathoms, which we are now inclined to call "shallow water"; Dr. Carpenter's word was "shallows." have been regarded by naturalists as peculiarly "abyssal"! Fifty years ago such depths would The elaborate report of my lamented friend Prof. Edward Forbes, on the investigation of British Marine Zoology by means of the dredge, which he submitted to the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1850, and to which I contributed as a humble fellow worker, was preceded by his equally valuable "Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Ægean Sea, and on their Distribution, co. sidered as bearing on Geology." The last-mentioned Report was published by the Association in 1844. Forbes's conclusion that the sea-bottom at a depth of 300 fathoms is lifeless, because he found that life diminished gradually, and almost ceased when he dredged at 230 fathoms, has certainly been proved to be inaccurate as regards