dictions to ever fuller and more complex reconciliations; a real dialectic which is not created by consciousness, but whose movement is the same as the movement of the evolution of things. The Logic, in an unbroken dialectical chain, leads to the Philosophy of Nature, that is to say to the Idea estranged, as it were, from itself; and this again leads to the Philosophy of Spirit, or to the Idea which has returned from nature to itself, and assumes, along with possession of itself, an existence that is independent.

The development of Spirit is the logical process which leads it from dependence on nature to freedom, which is its essence. The moments of this progress are the Subjective Spirit, the Objective Spirit and the Absolute Spirit. The Subjective Spirit as depending on nature and on the body (human temperament, sleep, etc.) is the object of Anthropology. Phenomenology deals with the Subjective Spirit in its progressive elevation towards reason; Psychology considers it in its speculative and practical powers. Intelligence emancipates itself

speculatively when it recognizes that all is reason realized; practically, when its content is determined by will.

The unity of will and thought is the active energy of a freedom that determines itself. The essence of morality is will taking reason as its end; which means that the mind is free when it recognizes that it creates everything, when, consequently, it wills everything that it creates; in other words, when the Idea, conscious of itself and of its products, recognizes itself as God in the spirit. Objective Spirit consists in the products of the will: customs, laws, states. Absolute Spirit is Art, which is the Idea appearing in a determinate form; Religion, which is the form under which the Absolute appears to imagination and to feeling; Philosophy, which is the idea thinking itself, truth knowing itself, conscious reason. The divine Spirit finds itself again and comes to rest in Hegel's mind and in that of his disciples. The truth, which is now the soul, is God Himself.

Scottish and French Spiritualism.

In the meantime a less ambitious philosophy was being developed in Scotland and France. Reid, the founder of the Scottish school, appealed to common sense as a means of

escape from the scepticism of Hume. "I take it for granted that all the thoughts that I am conscious of or remember, are the thoughts of one and the same thinking principle, which I call myself, or my mind" (On the Intell. Powers, I, Ch. II). He endeavours, nevertheless, to prove by logic the existence of the soul which he had begun by assuming without discussion. Starting from a common-sense principle, he says: "Every action or operation therefore supposes an agent; every quality supposes a subject. . . . We do not give the name of mind to thought, reason, or desire, but to that being which thinks, which reasons, which desires" (Ibid.). In order to determine the nature of the soul he reasons from phenomena to an underlying substance. My personal identity therefore implies the continued existence of that indivisible thing which I call myself."

Royer-Collard accepted the doctrines of Reid. Maine de Biran insists strongly on the difference between the knowledge of self which is immediate and direct, and our knowledge of external things which is mediate and indirect. The soul considered in its substance is an unknown quantity, but, through reflection on itself, the subject knows itself as a cause, and distinguishes itself from all its phenomena. In the primitive fact of effort, the Ego already apprehends itself in its antithesis to the Non-ego, and consequently posits itself in its opposition to that which is not itself. Jouffroy, who at first followed Reid in his inference of substance from phenomena, finally associated himself with this theory, according to which, it is through intuitive reflection alone that we reach the Ego. M. Ravaisson, developing Maine de Biran's ideas, maintains that reflection does not give us, besides itself, some unknown substance; but that it apprehends that very essence of the soul which is, in the first place, force, and finally love, since force presupposes a tendency. At the same time he insists on the incessant passage of life into thought, and he abandons the Cartesian dualism for a doctrine which approaches the theories of Leibnitz and Schelling.

Conclusion.

The hypothesis of a soul is suggested by the necessity of finding a reason both for the unity of the universe and

for the unity of the body and of thought. Hence the hypothesis of a universal soul and of individual souls. The theory of a world-soul is apt to reappear whenever men have tried to dispense with a creative and providential God. Materialism, Empiricism, Criticism, Spiritualism are, as we have seen, the chief solutions which have been proposed. Materialism, evading the question, leaves us only a principle of division and multiplicity, which it has not even succeeded in defining. Empiricism, by developing in its analyses the data of the problem—which it refuses to attack-has assisted in making the problem stand out more clearly. Criticism, in the a priori forms of thought, provides an explanation of both the concatenation of phenomena. and the unity of the mind. The different metaphysical hypotheses are the result of repeated efforts to find for the harmony of the universe, as for the unity of the body and the human mind, a real principle which would be their sufficient reason.

CHAPTER IV

THE RELATIONS BETWEEN MATTER AND MIND

THOSE Systems of philosophy which exclude dualism are yet obliged to account in some way for the appearances which have suggested the hypothesis of two ultimate substances. Every metaphysical theory admits the existence of an active and a passive principle, and seeks in the relations of these two terms an explanation of nature and of human life. What we have then to look for in History are the solutions successively proposed for the problem which in its acute form, so to speak, becomes the problem of the intercommunication of substances. In this way we shall complete our summary of the essential elements in the great metaphysical theories concerning nature and man.

Pre-Socratic Philosophy: Confusion between Active and Passive Principles.

As we have seen, the first Greek philosophers had no clear conception of the distinction between matter and mind. The element whose evolution constituted the world, was at once matter and force. Thales' fluid principle was a living, divine thing (Arist. De Anim. 411 a, 7). The air of Anaximenes was in perpetual motion, and was God (Cic. De Nat. Deor. 1, 10). Diogenes of Apollonius, to explain the order of the world, contents himself with making intelligence an attribute of the material element (air), which, according to him, constitutes the substance of things (Simplic, In Phys. 36b). With Heraclitus, fire is at once the primary element of things, the

principle of motion by its incessant transformation and by the law of the union of contraries immanent in it, and the principle of harmony. In man, body and mind are distinguished, but this distinction does not go so far as to represent them as opposite substances. Body is fire densified : spirit is the primitive fire in its purity (Arist. De Anima. 1, 2, 405 a, 25).

The distinction between the corporeal and the incorporeal was unknown to the Eleatics also. Parmenides describes Being as a continuous, homogeneous, limited mass, extending in every direction equally from its centre (V, 102 sq.). Thought, to him, was not distinct from Being; outside of Being there was nothing, and all thought was thought of Being (V, 94).

The Pythagorean cosmology was based on the principle of order and harmony. The earth was not the centre of the universe, because of itself it is without light. The central fire was luminous and motionless, because light and rest stand in the series of things that are good. Are we to understand from this that for the Pythagoreans the principle of harmony was something distinct from the matter which it governs? Certainly not. What we find in the world is the quality of the elements which constitute it. If all things are made of Numbers it is. because Number is the substance of things. Undoubtedly," says Aristotle, "they appear to consider Number to be a first principle, and, as it were, a material cause of things, and of their divers modifications and habits" (Aristotle, Metaph. Book V, 5, 986 a, 15).

In the doctrine of Democritus, motion was eternal, and therefore the hypothesis of any motor cause distinct from matter was superfluous. The soul consisted of atoms which were connected with its moving and life-giving power, and filled the whole universe. The air contained a great deal of soul and of reason, because it contained a great many psychical atoms: ἐν γὰρ τῷ ἀέρι πολὺν ἀριθμὸν εἶναι τῶν τοιόντων, ἅ καλεῖ ἐκεῖνος νοῦν καὶ ψυχήν (Arist. De Resp. c. 4). Ignited atoms engendered motion and life through their physical properties, and when accumulated in a great mass they produced thought, which was merely a kind of motion. The human soul being an extended thing, there