of the Germans, Ann. II. 14, where Germanicus in his speech to his army is represented as saying of them that though their appearance is dreadful, and though their strength is great for a sudden effort, yet they are unable to endure wounds.' A somewhat similar description is given of the Highlanders who followed the young Pretender.

6. Laboris atque operum.] Labor' denotes toil generally; opera,' as elsewhere, has special reference to work connected with a campaign, intrenching camps, cutting down timber,' &c.

7. Aestumque tolerare.] Comp. Hist. II. 93, where the German soldiers in Rome are described as suffering aestus impatientia.'

CHAPTER V.

1. Aliquanto.] 'To a considerable extent.'

2. Silvis horrida.] 'Bristling with forests,' such as the 'silva Hercynia, Caesia, Teutoburgiensis,' &c.

3. Satis.] The ablative case of 'satum' (a sown crop), a word frequently used by Virgil.

4. Frugiferarum arborum.] Sc. the finer kinds of fruittrees, as the mention of poma agrestia in Ch. 23 shews. The vine was then unknown in Germany.

5. Improcera.] The construction appears to be suddenly changed for the sake of avoiding the awkward sound of 'improcerorum.' It is not possible that improcera can be applied to terra,' as has been assumed by some interpreters. Even Tacitus would not have ventured on so obscure an expression.

6. Ne armentis...frontis.] The horses do not attain their proper size, and the cattle have not such fine horns as they have in Italy. The word 'armentum' derived from aro includes horses' and horned cattle.

7. Numero gaudent.] They (the people) take delight in having a large number.' 'Numerus' is often equivalent to 6 magnus munerus. Comp. (at end of chapter) 'numerus argen

teorum.'

8. Haud perinde.] Orelli takes this as equivalent to non admodum. There is no doubt an implied contrast between German simplicity and Roman luxury and avarice. This seems better than Kritz's view, that perinde compares possessio and usus ('they care more about possessing than using,' &c.).

9. Est videre.] A Greek form of expression, tσT ὁρᾷν.

10. Vilitate.] Kritz reads 'utilitate,' a conjecture which seems unnecessary. The words non in alia may well stand for 'pari' or 'eadem.'

II. Proximi.] Sc. those nearest the Rhine.

12. Agnoscunt.] They are well acquainted with.'

13. Serratos bigatosque.] Serrati were denarii the circumferences of which had been made to resemble a saw (serra). This was to insure them from being clipped. 'Bigati' (as Pliny, H. N. XXXIII. 3, 13, explains) were coins stamped with the image of a two-horse chariot (biga). There were also coins called quadrigati.' The 'bigati' and 'quadrigati' were invariably silver coins.

14. Affectione animi.] This reading (for which Kritz substitutes affectatione) appears to be perfectly intelligible. 'Affectio animi' may, for anything we can see to the contrary, mean a particular as well as a general state of mind, and so in this passage may denote a whim or caprice in regard to the matter in question. The Germans had no bias in favour of silver rather than gold; they preferred silver coins as the most convenient.

CHAPTER VI.

1. Superest.] 'Is abundant.' Compare Ch. 26, superest ager, and Agr. 44, gratia oris supererat.

2. Ex genere telorum.] According to Ann. II. 14, the Germans had neither helmet nor coat of mail; even their shields were not strengthened with iron or leather, but were merely a contexture of twigs or thin painted boards; only their first rank was armed with spears, the rest had short darts hardened by fire.

3. Lanceis.] This according to Diodorus, v. 30, was a Gallic word. The 'lancea' seems to have differed from the 'hasta' in having a broader point.

4. Frameas.] The 'framea' was probably furnished with a leather thong, so that it could be thrown forward and drawn back. It was thus suitable for distant as well as for close fighting.

5. Cultus.] Here equivalent to ornatus militaris.

6. Cassis aut galea.] The cassis' was of metal, the 'galea' of leather. This is the distinction drawn between the

two words by Isidorus Hispalensis in his Origines, a work on Etymologies, XVIII. 14.

7. Sed nec, &c.] 'Nor are they taught, &c.' i. e. they are neither swift, handsome, nor well trained.

8. Variare gyros.] Sc. to describe a movement of which the figure 8 gives one the best idea.

9. Ita conjuncto orbe.] The movement may be thus explained. The line of horsemen formed the radius of a circle, of which the rider on the extreme right was the centre, while the rider on the extreme left followed the line of the circumference. Their skill consisted in always presenting an even front. This was effected by each man adapting his speed to his position.

10. In universum aestimanti.] For si quis in universum aestimat. We find the same expression Agr. II. The meaning is: Taking a general view of the Germans.' There were a few tribes, as the Tencteri, who were famous for their cavalry. See Ch. 32.

II. Mixti praeliantur.] Sc. infantry fight intermixed with cavalry. Caesar, B. G. 1. 48, in the account of his war with Ariovistus, speaks of infantry who were so active that they could lay hold of the manes of the cavalry horses and keep pace with them.

12. Definitur et numerus.] Sc. there is a certain fixed proportion of these chosen youths just mentioned to so many cavalry.

13. Idque ipsum vocantur.] Sc. 'centeni' vocantur.

14. Nomen et honor.] 'A name of distinction.' A hendiadys.

15. Cuneos.] Distinct bodies,' opposed in Hist. v. 16 to porrectum agmen.

16. Consilii... arbitrantur.] 'They consider a mark of prudence rather than of cowardice.' Tacitus often omits 'potius' in such sentences.

17. Multique...finierunt.] Comp. Herod. VII. 232, where we find a report mentioned by the historian of a certain Spartan Pantaites, who, having been sent on a message by Leonidas, and having thus escaped the fate of the 300 at Thermopylae, hanged himself on his return to Sparta.

CHAPTER VII.

1. Ex nobilitate.] Not meaning 'ex nobilibus,' but propter nobile genus.

2. Quam imperio.] Comp. Ch. II, where we are told that the king or chief is obeyed rather from his ability to persuade than his authority to command.'

3. Admiratione praesunt.] 'Admiratione,' as well as 'exemplo' and 'imperio,' is a causal ablative, not equivalent to cum admiratione,' as Kritz takes it.

4. Animadvertere.] To punish with death. Comp. Hist. I. 46, In Marcianum Icelum palam animadversum; and 1. 68, In Julium Alpinum Caecina animadvertit. The absolute use of the word is exceptional.

5. Ne verberare quidem.] In the Roman army even the centurion could do as much as this, for which purpose he carried a staff of vine-wood (vitis).

6. Effigies.] Sc. images of boars, wolves, bulls, &c. Compare Hist. IV. 22, where we find that in the army of Civilis there were 'the images of wild beasts brought out of the woods and sacred groves (of the Germans).'

7. Detracta.] The word seems to suggest that these images were usually suspended from trees, &c., though it is used very commonly for simple removal. See Ch. 45, in which we are told that the Aestii carry about, as a symbol of their superstition, the figures of wild boars.'

6

8. Turmam aut cuneum.] The first word is used of cavalry, the second of infantry.

9. Pignora.] Sc. their wives and children. The word is similarly used Agr. 38, 'Aliquando frangi aspectu pignorum suorum, saepius concitari.' We have an illustration of this practice Hist. IV. 18. Civilis, we are there told, when on the eve of battle, directed his mother and sisters, and the wives and children of all his men, to stand in the rear, where they might encourage the troops to victory and shame them if they fled.' The same thing is said to have been done by the Teutones in the great battle of Aquae Sextiae, B. C. 102.

10. Audiri.] This is the reading of the MSS. and is followed by Orelli, who understands 'possit.' It cannot well be taken as the historic infinitive, coming as it does after the relative 'unde.' Kritz reads 'auditur.'

11. Sanctissimi.] 'Most solemnly binding.'

12. Exigere plagas.] We prefer Lipsius' interpretation of 'exigere,' 'requirere cum exprobatione,' to that of recent commentators who explain the word to mean 'carefully examining and probing the wounds.' The German women may well be supposed to have actually demanded wounds as a test of valour. In the three other passages in which the word 'exigere' occurs in this work, Ch. 10, auspiciorum adhuc fides exigitur; 14, exigunt...illum bellatorem equum; 20, in accipiendis obsidibus magis exigunt, it has the meaning of 'requiring' or 'demanding.'

13. Cibos et hortamina...gestant.] An instance, among many, of combining under the government of the same verb incongruous objects. Gestare hortamina' would hardly be a correct expression.

CHAPTER VIII.

1. Memoriae proditur...a feminis restitutas.] Both Caesar and Plutarch speak of the bravery of the German women, and very possibly Tacitus had the first of these writers in his mind. Caesar, B. G. VII. 51, says that on one great occasion they accompanied the soldiers to battle, and, with dishevelled hair, intreated them not to give them up to slavery. Plutarch (Life of Marius, c. 19) tells us that in the battle of Aquae Sextiae they actually took part in the engagement, and that armed with swords and axes, they drove back both their own fugitives and the pursuing enemy.

2. Objectu pectorum.] Sc. not merely baring their breasts, but actually exposing them to the weapons of the enemy.

3. Monstrata cominus captivitate.] Sc. by visibly shewing captivity as close at hand.' A less concise writer would have said, 'captivitate quae in propinquo esset.'

4. Feminarum...nomine.] Sc. feminarum respectu. The ablative of nomen' is often equivalent to our expression, 'on the score of.'

5. Consilia...responsa.] The first word signifies 'counsels given unasked;' the second, 'replies to specific questions.'

6. Vidimus...Veledam.] Tacitus is here speaking of himself and his contemporaries, and he means, 'We actually zaw Veleda, who was long regarded, &c.' Veleda is mentioned three times in the course of the historian's narrative of the war