chanter. Their action is to extend the hips, to raise the body from the stooping position, to assist in walking by firmly holding the pelvis on the thigh while the opposite leg is advanced in the forward direction.

The Rectus femoris with its associates, the rectus internus and externus and crureus, form the fleshy mass on the anterior surface of the thigh. The former arises from the anterior part of the ilium, the latter from the femur. Their common tendon, which is united to the patella, is continued as the ligamentum patellæ, which is attached to the upper part of the tibia. The action of this muscular group is to extend the leg, to flex the thigh, and to raise the entire weight of the body, as in passing from the sitting to the erect position.

The Biceps femoris muscle, situated on the outer and posterior aspect of the thigh, arises from the tuber ischii and is inserted into the head of the fibula.

The Semi-membranosus and the Semi-tendinosus muscles, situated on the inner and posterior aspect of the thigh, are inserted into the head of the tibia. Their combined action is to extend the hips and to flex the knee. Acting from below, they assist in raising the body from the stooping position.

The Gastrocnemius muscle forms the enlargement known as the calf of the leg. It arises by two heads from the condyles of the femur. Its tendon, the tendo-achillis, is inserted into the posterior surface of the heel bone. Its action is to extend the foot and to raise the weight of the body in walking and running. On the front of the leg are numerous muscles, e.g., Tibialis anticus, Peroneus longus, etc., the action of which is to flex the foot and to antagonize the gastrocnemius.

FOOD.

A Food may be defined to be any substance capable of playing a part in the nutrition of the body.

Food is required for the repair of the waste of the tissues consequent on their functional activity, for the generation of heat, and the evolution of force.

Hunger and Thirst are sensations which indicate the necessity for taking food; they arise in the tissues at large, and are referred to the stomach and fauces, respectively, through the sympathetic nervous system. Inanition or Starvation results from an insufficiency or absence of

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food, the physiological effects of which are hunger, intense thirst, intestinal uneasiness, weakness, and emaciation; the quantity of carbonic acid exhaled diminishes and the urine is lessened in amount; the volume of the blood diminishes; a fetid odor is exhaled from the body; vertigo, stupor followed by delirium, and at times convulsions, result from a disturbance of the nerve centers: a marked fall of the bodily temperature occurs, from a diminished activity of the nutritive process. Death usually takes place

from exhaustion.

During starvation the loss of different tissues, before death occurs, averages, or 40 per cent. of their weight.

Those tissues which lose more than 40 per cent. are fat, 93.3; blood, 75; spleen, 71.4; pancreas, 64.1; liver, 52; heart, 44.8; intestines, 42.4; muscles, 42.3. Those which lose less than 40 per cent. are the muscular coat of the stomach, 39.7; pharynx and esophagus 34.2; skin, 33.3; kidneys, 31.9; respiratory apparatus, 22.2; bones, 16.7; eyes, 10; nervous system, 1.9.

The fat entirely disappears, with the exception of a small quantity which remains in the posterior portion of the orbits and around the kidneys. The blood diminishes in volume and loses its nutritive properties. The muscles undergo a marked diminution in volume and become soft and flabby. The nervous system is last to suffer, not more than two per cent. disappearing before death occurs.

The appearances presented by the body after death from starvation are those of anemia and great emaciation; almost total absence of fat; bloodlessness; a diminution in the volume of the organs; an empty condition of the stomach and bowels, the coats of which are thin and transparent. There is a marked disposition of the body to undergo decomposition, giving rise to a very fetid odor.

The duration of life after a complete deprivation of food varies from eight to thirteen days, though life can be maintained much longer if a quantity of water be obtained. The water is more essential under these circumstances than the solid matters, which can be supplied by the organism itself.

The food consumed daily is a heterogeneous compound consisting of both nutritious and innutritious portions. The nutritious portions are known as the alimentary principles, while the food, as a whole, is known as aliment.

The different alimentary principles which are appropriated by the system are combined in different proportions in the various articles of food, and are separated from the innutritious substances during the process of diges

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tion. They belong to the organic and inorganic worlds, and may be classified, according to their chemical composition, as follows:

CLASSIFICATION OF ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES.

1. Albuminous Group-Nitrogenized, C. O. H. N. S. P.

2. Saccharin Group-Non-nitrogenized, C. O. H.

Cane sugar, beet-root sugar,

Glucose, grape sugar,

Inosit, liver sugar, glycogen,

Lactose or milk sugar,

Starch,

Sugar cane, beets, etc.

Fruits.

Muscles, liver, etc.

Milk.

Cereals, tuberous roots, and leguminous plants.

3. Oleaginous Group-Non-nitrogenized, C. O. H.

Animal fats and oils,

Stearin, olein,

Palmitin, fatty acids,

Found in the adipose tissue of animals, seeds, grains, nuts, fruits, and other vegetable tissues.

4. Inorganic Group. Water, sodium and potassium chlorids, sodium, calcium, magnesium and potassium phosphates, calcium carbonate and iron. 5. Vegetable Acid Group. Malic, citric, tartaric, and other acids, found principally in fruits.

6. Accessory Foods. Tea, coffee, alcohol, cocoa, etc.

The albuminous principles enter largely into the composition of the body, and constitute the organic bases of the different tissues; they are mainly required for the growth and repair of the tissues. There is good reason to believe that the albuminous principles are decomposed in the body into fat and urea, and the former when oxidized gives rise to the evolution of heat and force, while the latter is eliminated by the kidneys. Muscular work, however, does not result from a destruction of the albuminous compounds, the oxidation of the carbonaceous compounds, sugars and oils, furnishing the force which is transformed by the muscular system