The President of the Executive Committee is Prof. Julian Calleja, the Vice-President the Marquis del Busto, Professor in the Madrid Faculty of Medicine. As far as relates to hygiene, the work of the Congress will be divided among ten Sections as follows: microbiology in relation to hygiene; prophylaxis and transmissible disease; medical climatology and topography; urban hygiene; hygiene of alimentation; hygiene of infancy and of schools; hygiene of exercise and labour; military and naval hygiene; veterinary hygiene, civil and military; sanitary architecture and engineering. The part of the work relating to Demography will be divided among three sections as follows: technics of demographic statistics; statistical results in relation to demography; dynamical demography (movements of population, &c.). A British Committee, of which Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., is Chairman, has been formed to secure the co-operation of sanitarians in this country, and generally to promote the success of the Congress. Programmes of the subjects to be dealt with, and all other particulars, may be obtained from the Honorary Secretary to the British Committee, Dr. Paul F. Moline, 42 Walton Street, Chelsea.

A CABLEGRAM through Reuter's agency, dated January 6 at Bombay, states that plague returns for Bombay show 142 cases and 105 deaths during the preceding forty-eight hours. Later news states that on January 8-9 there were 159 cases and 126 deaths. The total mortality during the present outbreak is 406. The epidemic is now following closely the lines of the original outbreak, and ominous rumours are circulating to the effect that unless things improve by the time of the forthcoming solar eclipse, there will be a serious exodus and a general suspension of business.

THE memorial presented to the Department of Woods and Forests by the Guildford Natural History Society, asking that Wolmer Forest be reserved as a sanctuary for wild birds and other animals, has been passed on to the War Department, to which the forest, including the rights of shooting and sporting, is in lease. In doing so, Mr. Howard, Commissioner of Woods and Forests, takes the occasion to remark that he is disposed to think that the best mode of arriving at the objects which the petitioners have in view is to take advantage of the game laws and the present system of game preservation in order to protect animal life generally. He thinks that where game preservation is carried out only those creatures which are specially destructive of birds are kept down, and animal life generally flourishes better than it would be likely to do in other circumstances.

DR. E. ZINTGRAFF, whose death we have already announced, was one of the most energetic of the German pioneers to whom fell the work of exploring the interior of the Cameroons, after that territory had, in 1884, become a dependency of the German Empire. Born at Dusseldorf in 1858, Dr. Zintgraff obtained his doctor's degree at the University of Heidelberg, and gained his first experience of African exploration as member of Dr. Chavanne's expedition to the Congo (1884). A year or two later he proceeded to the Cameroons, at that time a veritable terra incognita in respect of all but its coast line. For the space of six years his activity was unabated, and to him belongs the honour of being the first to push his way through the belt of dense forest lying behind the Coast Settlements to the open grassy plains which occupy the interior plateau, and to reach by this route the populous regions of Adamaua in the Southern Sudan, with their enterprising population of Hausas. This successful journey to the north was not made until 1889, the previous years having been occupied by detailed explorations north of the Cameroons Mountain, and by the establishment of the Barombi Station as a base from which the ultimate advance could be made. Dr. Zintgraff subsequently did much

to encourage agricultural enterprise in the Cameroons. His arduous journeys had undermined his health, and the latter years of his life were spent at Teneriffe, where he died on December 5, 1897.

THE work which the late Mr. Gardiner G. Hubbard did for the cause of science is made the subject for appreciative comment in Science. In 1883 Mr. Hubbard and Mr. Alexander Graham Bell founded the old series of Science, the first editor of which was Mr. S. H. Scudder. He was what the French language terms an entrepreneur of scientific ideas, inventions and discoveries-the man of affairs who pushed them into the service deaf, and also of the telephone, for it was through his energy of mankind. He was the entrepreneur of oral speech for the and business ability that the instrument was introduced to the world and made a practical agency of intercommunication. Having accomplished this he retired to Washington, and when the National Geographic Society was founded there, he was elected first president. The function of the National Geographic Society is the discussion of the principles of geography and the diffusion of geographical knowledge among the people. To carry out this purpose Mr. Hubbard organised the National Geographic Magazine. Then he organised a system of bulletins designed to discuss the elements of physiography as a compendious library for teachers in the public schools, and finally he organised in the city of Washington a system of public lectures on geography, enlisting not only the members of the Society, but many other able public men in this enterprise. In all of these agencies the working geographers of Washington most heartily co-operated, and the National Geographic Society has within very few years attained remarkable influence and efficiency.

THE January number of the National Review has an admirable article by Mr. Gerald Arbuthnot, entitled "In Defence of the Muzzle." The temperate spirit in which it is written, and the conscientious manner in which the statistics referred to have been collected, ought to materially strengthen the hands of those who are upholding the muzzling order for dogs, in the face of the selfish and short-sighted opposition which it is receiving from a certain section of the public. In the same magazine we note also a paper by Mr. Arthur Shadwell, dealing with the recent outbreaks of typhoid fever. The writer permits himself to affirm that the medium by which the poison of typhoid fever is diffused "can hardly be anything else but water, acting directly or indirectly." The diffusion of typhoid fever is far too complicated a problem, and involves too many factors to enable water to become thus wholly responsible, as the writer seems to consider. Whilst contaminated water is undoubtedly an important-a very important-factor in the dissemination of this disease, there are other conditions which must be considered in this connection, and amongst such sewer-gas would seem to deserve a prominent place. Several years ago now, it was shown by an Italian investigator that the inhalation of sewergas markedly increased the predisposition of the subject under experiment, to suffer from the effects of typhoid poison.

IN the early days of railway engineering, little circumspection was used in laying down lines, and many tunnels were constructed which would nowadays be avoided by following the policy of evading obstacles wherever possible. An unnecessary tunnel of this kind, built fifty years ago by the North British Railway Company, and running for 3000 yards at a depth of 60 feet below the streets of Edinburgh, was afterwards discarded, another line having been constructed which carries the traffic outside the city. For a time the old tunnel remained unused, but ten years ago it was taken over by Messrs. R. and J. Paton, of Glasgow, and has since been used by them for the purpose of cultivating mushrooms. The story of this industry is briefly

told in the January number of Pearson's Magazine. A little consideration will show that the tunnel offers ideal conditions for the growth of mushrooms; the temperature varying but very slightly, and light being absent. The result of this combination of favourable conditions is that the Scottish Mushroom Company now practically control the market in cultivated mushrooms. The Company has eight hundred mushroom beds in the tunnel, each about 12 feet by 3 feet in size. When in full operation about one thousand bushels of spawn are used yearly. The highest output reaches five thousand pounds of mushrooms per month. The steady and constant supply has killed foreign competition in mushrooms; for it appears that, whereas ten years ago the quantity of French mushrooms consumed in Great Britain largely exceeded those of home growth, they form at present only about one-hundredth part of the total supply.

A

At first he

A NUMBER of remarkable instances of hallucinations connected with hemianopia, or complete blindness in one or other half of the visual field, are described by Dr. W. Harris in the course of an article in the new number of Brain. In one case of partial hemianopia the patient had visual hallucinations, lasting a few minutes, of folk and horses moving in a reddish atmosphere, the visions being limited to the blind field of vision. Another saw continually in his blind field a man standing at the back of his head, holding two lighted candles. man who developed right hemianopia was troubled ten days later with hallucinations of men, flies, insects, &c. recognised their unreality, but after a few days he became convinced they were real. The spectres became more frequent, and he would then hunt for t'em in cupboards and corners. Another case of hemianopia with hallucinations in the blind field, is that of a man who suddenly lost power of speech, using wrong words, and forgetting the names of things. During a subsequent attack of temporary loss of speech he suddenly noticed while reading that his sight was confused, and that the print seemed to run together. After that he noticed he could not see so well to the right, and he used to bump up against things on his right side, and had to be careful whilst crossing the road. He also has had visual hallucinations of animals and faces moving about to his right. Dr. Harris discusses the seat of production of visual hallucinations of this kind, and concludes that they cannot be elaborated in the half-vision centre in the cuneus of the brain, but in a higher visual centre-possibly the angular gyrus.

PROF. PLATEAU'S experiments on the conditions which induce insects to visit flowers have been referred to on several

occasions (see p. 179). It is worth while, however, bringing the facts together. In the concluding part of his series of papers, "Comment les fleurs attirent les insectes," in the Bull. de l'Acad. des Sciences de Belgique, Prof. Plateau thus sums up the results at which he has arrived. In seeking for pollen or nectar, insects are guided only to a subsidiary extent by the sense of sight. They continue to visit scented flowers after the coloured parts have been almost entirely removed. When flowers of the same species vary in colour, they exhibit neither preference nor antipathy for one colour over another. Inconspicuous flowers hidden among foliage attract large numbers of insects. Artificial flowers made of paper or calico, even when brightly coloured and closely resembling real flowers, are not visited by insects; but they are when made of green leaves which have a vegetable scent. If flowers which have little or no nectar, and which are therefore habitually neglected by insects, are smeared with honey, insects are attracted in large numbers. On the other hand, if the nectary is removed from flowers habitually visited, their visits cease at once. The author has paid especial attention to entomophilous flowers, and finds that their exemption from the visits of insects is due mainly to

their not providing them with honey. From all these facts M. Plateau draws the conclusion that the guiding sense to insects in visiting flowers must be chiefly the sense of smell.

WRITING in the Revue générale des Sciences for December 30, 1897, Dr. Louis Olivier describes the latest combination of the principles of the microphone and phonograph under the name of microphonograph, the invention of M. F. Dussaud, of Geneva, and which has been subsequently developed by M. George F. Jaubert and M. Berthon. A demonstration of the properties of this apparatus was given a short time ago at the house of M. and Mme. Eugène Pereire. From certain physiological facts, Dr. Laborde showed the possibility of rendering sounds audible to deaf mutes by this instrument, and his view received practical confirmation at the hands of Dr. Gellé, who experimented with signal success on a number of subjects to whom a sensation of sound was thus conveyed for the first time. It is suggested that the micro-phonograph may become an important factor in the education of deaf and dumb subjects. It will be remembered that a method of giving deaf mutes the feeling, or at all events the rhythm of music, was devised by Prof. McKendrick, and has been described in these columns (vol. lvi. p. 212). Finally, M. Berthon and M. Jaubert have employed the new apparatus in connection with the telephone and the kinematograph, the latter combination rendering it possible to reproduce scenes with all the attendant sounds of conversation and so forth. With this apparatus it is proposed to arrange life-like reproductions of a number of naval scenes at the Exhibition of 1900, under the auspices of the Compagnie générale Transatlantique.

WHERE certain salts, such as bromide of potassium and chloride of sodium, undergo changes of colour under the action of kathodic rays, after the method of Goldstein, it has been found by Profs. Elster and Geitel that they are at the same time rendered photo-electrically sensitive, inasmuch as in sun. light or broad daylight they lose any negative electric charges imparted to them more rapidly than in the dark. The saine physicists, writing in Wiedemann's Annalen (62), now examine whether the same property is conferred on these salts when the coloration is produced by heating them in the presence of potassium or sodium vapour, after the manner described by Kreutz and Giesel. In the case of common salt, the electrometer readings representing the loss of charge in one minute in light were as follows:-For salt coloured by kathodic rays and kept in darkness a year, 214; rock-salt coloured brown to blue by potassium vapour, 73; natural violet salt, 23; chloride data in the dark being 0, -10, -2, -3. of sodium coloured by Berlin blue,+ 1; the corresponding With potassium bromide, nearly blackened by potassium vapour, in light, 171; the same bright blue, 101; the same coloured by Berlin blue,+1; the results in darkness being -4, + 2,0-. There is thus no doubt that the same photo-electric properties are conferred on the salts by potassium vapour as by kathodic rays; and, moreover, these properties exist mere or less in the natural violet and blue varieties of such minerals as rock-salt and fluor-spar.

A DETAILED account of experiments in gliding flight is contributed by Mr. Octave Chanute to the Journal of the Western Society of Engineers (U.S.A.) for 1897. After trying many different types of gliding machines, some with as many as six superposed pairs of wings, Mr. Chanute seems to have chosen for his later experiments a form of apparatus with two narrow superposed aero-curves of rectangular form. The most noteworthy feature of Mr. Chanute's investigations is his invention of a regulating mechanism by which the fore and aft equilibrium and stability is automatically maintained without any exertion or special agility on the part of the operator, and even the

action of side gusts of wind is considerably diminished. We observe that the wing surfaces are fixed above the operator's head, an arrangement quite the reverse of that adopted by Mr. Pilcher. Nevertheless both Mr. Chanute and Mr. Herring have made numerous glides with perfect safety, and the latter has achieved considerable success in " 'quartering," i.e. advancing at an angle with the wind along the side of a hill up which a current of wind is blowing By this means Mr. Herring has succeeded in making a glide of 927 feet, the time occupied being about forty-eight seconds.

THE Bulletin of the Italian Geographical Society publishes a note announcing the successful starting from Tabriz of a small scientific expedition to Lake Urmia, under the direction of Prof. Paladini of Milan. It is intended to make a survey of the lake and the region immediately surrounding it.

APPLYING the principles laid down by Penck, in his "Morphologie," to the excellent and abundant data published by Forel, Dr. Wilhelm Halbfass has worked out in detail the morphometry of the Lake of Geneva: the results are to be found in the Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin (vol. xxxii. No. 4).

THE greater part of Nos. 9 and 10 of the present volume of the Mittheilungen of the Vienna Geographical Society is devoted to a learned paper, by Herr Fritz Pichler, on the Noreia of Polybius and of Castorius. Herr Pichler concludes that the town called Noreia by Castorius, near Neumarkt in Upper Styria, is an unimportant station, of which there is no trace previous to 365 A.D. The real Noreia of Polybius is the same as Virunum, near Klagenfurt, Noreia being the older name, traceable from B. C. 113 for centuries backwards.

MESSRS. SWAN SONNENSCHEIN AND CO. announce that they will shortly publish a work, entitled "The Wonderful Century: its Successes and its Failures," by Dr. Alfred R. Wallace, F.R.S. The object of the volume is to give a short descriptive sketch of all the more important mechanical inventions and scientific discoveries which are distinctive of the nineteenth century, and especially to enable those, who have lived only in the latter half of it, to realise its full significance in the history of human progress. The author maintains that our century is altogether unique; that it differs from the eighteenth or seventeenth centuries, not merely as those differed from the centuries which immediately preceded them, but that it has initiated a new era, and that it may be more properly compared with the whole preceding historical period.

THE additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the past week include a Rhesus Monkey (Macacus rhesus) from India, presented by Miss Vine; an Egyptian Jerboa (Dipus @gyptius) from North Africa, presented by Mr. H. W. Wibrow; an Indian Python (Python molurus) from India, presented by Mr. F. J. Allpress; three Common Squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris), British; two Blue-faced Honey-eaters (Entomyza cyanotis) from Australia, a Razorbill (Alca torda), two Common Widgeon (Mareca penelope), twelve Common Teal (Querquedula crecca), European, purchased.

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. COMPANIONS TO VEGA.-One of the proofs given as to the light-gathering power of the new Yerkes telescope is that Prof. Barnard has observed a new companion to Vega, which even the Lick telescope had failed to make visible. Measures made with a temporary micrometer gave its position angle 312° and distance 53 with respect to Vega. It is said to be much fainter than the small star discovered by Winnecke at Pulkova in 1864, whose magnitude is 14'5. In the Astr. Journ. (No. 414) Prof.

Barnard points out that the latter companion, with position angle 288° 9 and distance 53", is the same as that discovered by Mr. George Anderson, of the United States Naval Observatory, in 1881, but with a slightly modified position.

HARVARD COLLEGE REPORT.-In the fifty-second "Annual Report of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College,' Prof. Pickering gives an interesting account of the work done. As regards buildings his report is similar to that from many other observatories, in that they are old and far behind ob servatories not only of the first rank, but even of the second class. On the other hand, however, very few can say with him that their strongest feature is the large endowment for current expenses, which enables the large staff of forty assistants to be employed." The excellent work done at Arequipa is described in another part of NATURE (p. 249), so we will content ourselves with a brief summary of the work done in other sections of the observatory.

As before, Mr. O. C. Wendell has been engaged in the observations of variable stars, and the number of measures made is almost astounding, e.g. 1031 comparisons of o Ceti, 3296 of U Cephei, &c. Another series of interesting photometric comparisons are those made by Mr. E. R. Cram, on 8 Lyræ, the total number of measures being 2304

With the "Meridian Photometer" the total number of photometric settings has surpassed all previous records, numbering 100,052, and observations of all the stars of magnitude 7.5 and brighter, and north of 40, are now nearly completed Besides star work, measures were made of Uranus, Neptune, and nearly 500 each of Ceres, Juno, and Vesta.

The work in connection with the Draper Memorial has also been remarkable, and the hydrogen lines have been shown to be bright in the spectra of many known variables, U Cassiopeix, R Piscium, R Canis Minoris, and many others; also new variable stars have been detected by means of bright hydrogen lines in their spectra. The Report shows that excellent results have been attained; and such, we know, is the case from notes of discoveries made at the observatory, announcements of which have appeared from time to time in these columns.

ARTHUR KAMMERMANN.-We regret to record the death of Arthur Kammermann, astronomer at the Geneva Observatory (Astr. Nach., No. 3469).

Born at Bienne in 1861, he received his higher education at the Zürich Polytechnic, leaving there in 1881 with the diploma of "Fachlehrer." At Zürich he was initiated into astronomical work by M. R. Wolf, who strongly recommended him to Plantamour, at Geneva Observatory, where he became attached as assistant.

After the retirement of Dr. W. Meyer in 1883, he had the Plantamour equatorial under his charge, and undertook astronomical photography with it; with this instrument he worked until his death, and many of his observations have been published in the Astr. Nach. He was largely occupied with meteorological matters; and in the chronometric work of the observatory he rendered great services which benefited the watchmaking industry, so important to Geneva.

MINOR PLANETS IN 1897.-The total number of minor planets discovered in 1897 was only eight, which is considerably below the average of recent years; so that perhaps in time we shall be able to obtain a complete list of them. The latest discoveries were those of Charlois at Nice: DL on November 23, DM, DN, DO on December 18.

WE have received from Mr. Arthur Mee a copy of his "Amateur Observer's Card Almanac.' The calendar brings together in a handy form the principal phenomena for each day in the year, and it will be found useful to hang upon the walls of the observatory for reference.

PROF. G. M. SEARLE, professor of mathematics and astronomy in the Catholic University of America, has been appointed by the Pope to succeed the late Father Denza as director of the Vatican Observatory.

Science states that money has been granted by the Trustees of Amherst College for the purchase of a new telescope to replace the old instrument in use at present, and the bequest of 18,000 dollars for the purchase of a site for a new observatory will be expended as soon as the various plans for a new position have been carefully considered.

EARLY MAN IN SCOTLAND.

II.

ONE may now inquire into the reason why cinerary urns, with their contained ashes, and short cists, enclosing bodies which had been buried in a bent or stooping attitude, should be associated with the men of the Bronze Age. The first and most important is the presence of objects made of bronze. In the 144 localities under analysis in which interments ascribed to the Bronze Age have been examined bronze articles were found in thirty-four directly associated with the interments. In four of these the bronze was along with objects made of gold. In seven other interments of the same character gold ornaments without bronze were present. The men of this period were, therefore, workers in gold also; and as it has been, and indeed still can be, mined in Scotland, it is not unlikely that the ornaments had been wrought from native metal. Additional proof that the burials in short cists, and after cremation in cinerary urns, both belonged to the same period, and were practised by the same people, is furnished by the presence of articles of bronze and gold in both groups of interment.

But, in addition to metallic objects, the graves sometimes contained other implements and ornaments. In many localities articles made of flint, stone, or bone, and jet beads were associated with bronze. In others flints in the form of chips, knives, arrow-heads, and spear-heads; stone implements in the form of whetstones and hammers; bone and jet ornaments and bone pins have been found in short cists, and some of these articles also in cremation interments, unaccompanied by bronze. Attention has been called by Dr. Joseph Anderson to the character of the bronze objects usually associated with these burials ("Scotland in Pagan Times"). For the most part they have been thin blades, leaf-like or triangular in form, and either with or without a tang for the attachment of a handle. From their shape they might have been used as spear-heads, daggers, or knives. Not unfrequently the surfaces of the blade were ornamented with a punctated or incised pattern. Some times bronze pins, rings and bracelets have been obtained from these interments. It should, however, be stated that the bronze articles and ornaments of gold found in association with the burials are of a more simple character, and present less variety in form, purpose and decoration than those which have been got in hoards, in various parts of Scotland. It would seem, therefore, as if the people of this period, even if they were in posses. sion of such finished and beautifully decorated swords, bucklers, axes and bronze vessels as have been got in the hoards just referred to, did not deposit them in the graves of their deceased friends and relatives. It may be, however, that the simpler articles found in the interments represent a period in the Bronze Age earlier than that in which the art of making the more elaborate articles had been acquired, when perhaps the custom of depositing grave goods had been more or less departed from. Cinerary urns are not the only utensils formed of baked clay to which the term urn has been applied, and archeologists recognise by the names of "incense cups," "food vessels and "drinking cups," three other varieties.

Not

The examples of so-called Incense cups are not numerous in Scotland; they were associated with cremation interments, and have usually been contained in cinerary urns; they are the smallest of all the varieties of urn, and are, as a rule, from 2 to 3 inches high and about 3 inches wide. In one specimen from Genoch, Ayrshire, the cup possessed a movable lid. unfrequently the outer surface was patterned with horizontal, vertical, and zig-zag arrangements of lines. In a few cases the sides were perforated, as if to allow the escape of fumes; and it is probably from this character, as well as from their small size, which fitted them for being easily carried in the hand, that they have been termed incense cups. The burning of incense would, however, imply, on the part of the people of the Bronze Age, the possession of fragrant gums and resins such as are not indigenous to Britain, and which the ancient Caledonians were not at all likely to be in a position to procure. In most instances the contents of these cups were not preserved by the finders. An example which was discovered in 1857 at Craig Dhu, North Queensferry, covered by a larger urn, and about the size of a teacup, was filled with calcined human bones; the specimen from Genoch, found a number of years ago by Dr. James Macdonald, of Ayr, contained the burned bones and ashes of a child in its 1 A discourse delivered at the Royal Institution, London, by Sir William Turner, F.R.S. (Continued from page 237.)

fifth or sixth year. Of the conflicting theories as to the purpose to which these cups were applied, the view that, like the large urns with which they were associated, they were cinerary, and were intended for the reception of the ashes of an infant or young child, seems the most probable.

Numerous examples of the variety of urn termed "food vessel" have been found in Scotland, and "drinking cups although not quite so numerous, are fairly represented. In the 144 localities under analysis, the bowl-shaped food urns were found in thirty-one, drinking cups in twenty-five, and in seven instances the size and form of the urn is not stated with sufficient precision. With a few exceptions, in which the character of the burial had not been fully described, the urns were contained in short cists, in which also the skeleton of an unburnt body in the bent or contracted position was lying. In several instances it is stated that the urn, either food or drinking vessel, contained black dust, or earth, or greasy matter, but burnt bones are never said to constitute their contents. Not unfrequently, although this is not an invariable rule, the urn was placed in proximity to the head and raised hands of the skeleton.

These varieties of urn are by no means invariably present in short cists. In twenty-five localities where this kind of grave was seen, there is no record of either form of urn being present. It is obvious therefore that, though associated with so many inhumation interments, they were not regarded as necessary accompaniments, and they obviously discharged in the minds of the people of the time a different function from that of cinerary urns. The term food-urns applied to the bowl-shaped variety is probably appropriate, as indicating that edible substances were placed in them, in the belief that food should be provided for the use of the corpse. It is questionable, however, if the taller variety were drinking cups, as the unglazed clay would not fit them for the retention of liquids for any length of time. The presence of food urns in cists, along with, in some instances, implements and weapons, would point to the belief, in the minds of those practising this form of interment, in a resurrection of the body, and a restoration to the wants and habits of the previous life. It may be that placing the body in the crouching position, lying on one side, was regarded as the attitude best fitted, when the proper time came, to enable it to spring into the erect position and assume an active state of existence. The practice of cremation, however, to an almost equal extent as inhumation, by people of the same period, shows that they may not all have shared in the belief in a corporeal resurrection. But it should not be forgotten that, even in many cremation interments, blades and other objects made of bronze have been found along with the burnt bones and cinerary urns, as if for use in a future life.

The association of bronze objects, both with short cists and cinerary urns, establishes these forms of interment as practised at a time when bronze was the characteristic metal used in many purposes of life. The crouching attitude of the dead body, the contracted grave, and the varieties of urns already described, are therefore to be regarded as equally characteristic of this period, even if bronze is not found in a particular instance associated with the interment, and this view is generally held by archeologists in Scotland.

In a preceding paragraph implements and weapons made of stone, flint and bone were referred to as having been sometimes associated with bronze, and also of similar objects having been found in graves, in which, though obviously of the same class and period, no article made of metal was observed. Such an association proves that there was no sharp line of demarcation between the employment of the more simple substances used by Neolithic man in the manufacture of implements and weapons, and the use of bronze for similar purposes. The two periods undoubtedly overlapped. It has been customary to regard this overlapping as if bronze-using man had continued for a period to employ the same substances in making useful articles as did his Neolithic predecessors; that time was required before the more costly bronze, imported from foreign sources, replaced the native material, and that consequently both groups of objects became associated in the same grave.

Additional light is thrown on the mixture in the same interment of objects representing different stages of culture by a collection of goods from the grave of an aboriginal Australian, buried about fifty years ago, recently brought under my notice by Dr. R. Broom. Along with the skeleton were found a clay pipe, an iron spoon, the remains of a rusted pannikin, the handle of a pocket-knife, and a large piece of flint. The handle

of the knife, with its steel back, had doubtless been used along with the flint for the purpose of obtaining fire, as in Neolithic times a similar office was discharged by flint and a nodule of pyrites. These accompaniments of the Australian interments show that men in a lower grade of culture and intellectual power utilise, as opportunity offers, objects representing a much higher civilisation. It is possible, therefore, that some of the mixed interments ascribed to the Bronze Age may be the graves of Neolithic men who, in conjunction with articles of their own manufacture, had employed the material introduced by a bronzeusing race, with whom they had been brought in contact, and whose usages they had more or less imitated.

That the inhabitants of prehistoric Scotland were not a homogeneous people, but exhibited different types in their physical configuration, so as to justify the conclusion that they were not all of the same race, has long been accepted by archæologists. The first observer who made a definite statement, based on anatomical data, was the late Sir Daniel Wilson, in his well-known "Prehistoric Annals of Scotland. Whilst admitting that the material at his disposal was scanty, he thought that he was justified in stating that the primitive race in Scotland possessed an elongated dolichocephalic head, which he termed boat shaped, or kumbecephalic This race, he said, was succeeded by a people with shorter and wider skulls, which possessed brachycephalic proportions Further, he considered that both these races preceded the intrusion of the Celta into Scotland. But the evidence is by no means satisfactory that the interments from which Wilson obtained the long kumbecephalic skulls were of an older date than those which yielded the brachycephalic specimens. So far, therefore, as rests upon these data, one cannot consider it as proved that a long-headed race preceded a broad-headed race in Scotland, and that both were antecedent to the Celta.

Evidence from other quarters must be looked for, especially from the extensive researches of Thurnam, Greenwell, Rolleston and other archeologists into prehistoric interments in England; and by the study of the material which has accumulated in Scotland since the publication of Sir Daniel Wilson's "Prehistoric Annals."

rows.

The remains of prehistoric man in England subsequent to the Paleolithic Age have for the most part been found in mounds and tumuli, some of which were very elongated in form, others more rounded, so that they have been divided into the two groups of Long and Round barrows. There is a consensus of opinion that the long barrows were constructed by a race which inhabited England prior to the construction of the round barThe long barrows are indeed the most ancient sepulchral monuments in South Britain; obviously they were erected before the use of bronze or other metal became known to the people. They belonged, therefore, to the Neolithic Age, as is testified by the implements and weapons found in them being formed of stone, flint, bone and horn, and by the absence of metals. They are not widely distributed in England, but are found especially in a few counties in the north, as Yorkshire and Westmorland, and in the western counties in the south. The builders of these barrows in their interments practised both inhumation and cremation, but the burnt bones were never found in urns.

The study of the human remains obtained from the English long barrows by Drs. Thurnam and Rolleston proves that the crania were distinctly dolichocephalic, and that the height was greater than the breadth. Those measured by Dr. Thurnam gave a mean length-breadth index 71 4, whilst Dr. Rolleston's series were 72.6.

The round barrows were constructed by a bronze-using people. The crania obtained in them were, as a rule, brachycephalic. Of twenty-five skulls measured by Dr. Thurnam seventeen had the length-breadth index 80 and upwards, and in six of these the index was 85 and upwards. Only four were dolichocephalic, whilst in three the index ranged from 77 to 79. In the brachycephalic skulls the height was less than the breadth.

As similar physical conditions prevailed both in England and Scotland during the Polished Stone and Bronze periods, there is a strong presumption that the two races had, in succession to each other, migrated from South to North Britain. Unfortunately very few skulls have been preserved which can with certainty be ascribed to Neolithic man in Scotland, but those that have been examined from Papa Westray, the cairn of Get and Oban, are dolichocephalic, and doubtless of the same race as the builders of the English long barrows.

Seventeen skulls from interments belonging to the Bronze period have been examined by the author. The mean lengthbreadth index of twelve was 814, and the highest index was 88'6. In each skull the height was less than the breadth. In the other five specimens the mean index was 74; the majority, therefore, were brachycephalic. In only one specimen was the jaw prognathic; the nose was almost always long and narrow; the upper border of the orbit was, as a rule, thickened, and the height of the orbit was materially less than the width. The capacity of the cranium in three men ranged from 1380 to 1555 c.c.; the mean being 1462 c.c. In stature the Bronze men were somewhat taller than Neolithic men. The thigh bones of the Bronze Age skeletons gave a mean platymeric index 75'1, materially below the average of 81 8 obtained by Dr. Hepburn from measurements of the femora of modern Scots. The tibia of the same skeletons gave a mean platyknemic index 68.3; intermediate, therefore, between their Neolithic predecessors and the present inhabitants of Britain. Many of the tibiæ also possessed a retroverted direction of the head of the bone; but the plane of the condylar articular surfaces was not thereby affected, so that the backward direction of the head exercised no adverse influence on the assumption of the erect attitude.

Whilst in England the Bronze Age round barrows are numerous and the burials in short cists are comparatively rare, in Scotland the opposite prevails. Whilst part of Dr. Thurnam's aphorism, viz. "long barrows, long skulls," applies to both countries, the remaining part, "short barrows, short skulls," should be modified in Scotland to "short cists, short or round skulls."

The presence of dolichocephalic skulls in the interments of the Bronze Age shows that the Neolithic people had commingled with the brachycephalic race. Similarly the Bronze men, though subject to successive invasions by Romans, Angles, and Scandinavians, have persisted as a constituent element of the people of Great Britain. The author has found a strong brachycephalic admixture in the crania of modern Scots, in Fife, the Lothians, Peebles, and as far north as Shetland. In 116 specimens measured, 29, i.e. one-quarter, had a length-breadth index 80 and upwards, and in five of these the index was more than 85.

The question has been much discussed whether the people of the Polished Stone Age were descended from the men of the Ruder Stone Age, or were separated from them by a distinct interval of time. The latter view has been supported by Prof. Boyd Dawkins, who contends that there is a great zoological break between the fauna of the Paleolithic, Pleistocene period and that of the Neolithic Age, and that the two periods are separated from each other by a revolution in climate, geography and animal life."

Undoubtedly many large characteristic mammals of the Paleolithic fauna had entirely disappeared from Britain and western Europe, but some nine or ten species, as the otter, wolf, wild cat, wild boar, stag, roe, urus and horse, were continued into the Neolithic period; at which time the dog, small ox, pig, goat, and perhaps the sheep, as is shown by their osseous remains, were also naturalised in Britain. The continuity of our island with the continent by intermediate land, which existed during Paleolithic times, also became severed, and a genial temperate climate replaced more or less arctic conditions.

Man, however, possesses a power of accommodation, and of adapting himself to changes in his environment, such as is not possessed by a mere animal. The locus of an animal is regu lated by the climate and the nature of the food, so that a change of climate, which would destroy the special food on which an animal lives, would lead to the extinction of the animal in that locality. Man, on the other hand, is omnivorous, and can sustain himself alike on the flesh of seals, whales and bears in the Arctic circle, and on the fruits which ripen under a tropical sun. Man can produce fire to cook his food and to protect himself from cold, and can also manufacture clothing when necessary. Paleolithic man has left evidence that he had the capability to improve, for the cave men were undoubtedly in advance of the men who made the flint implements found in the river drifts. The capacity of the few crania of Paleolithic man which have been preserved is quite equal to, and in some cases superior to that of modern savages. So far as regards the implements which he manufactured and 1 Journal of Anat. and Phys., October 1896, vol. xxxi. 2"Cave Hunting, and Journal of Anthropological Institute," vol. xxiii., February 1894.