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employed, Neolithic man showed no material advance over the Paleolithic cave dweller.

The association of the bones of domestic mammals, which were not present in Paleolithic strata, along with the remains of Neolithic man, proves that additional species had been introduced into Western Europe at a particular period, probably by another race which had migrated northward and westward; but it by no means follows that Paleolithic man had of necessity disappeared prior to this migration, and that when Neolithic man reached Western Europe he found it, as regards his own species, a desolate solitude. How then did Neolithic man with his associated animals find his way into Britain?

Was it whilst the land remained, which connected Britain with the continent in interglacial times, and along which Paleolithic man had travelled, or was it at some subsequent period after the formation of intermediate arms of the sea? If the latter, then the further question arises, How was the transit effected? Neolithic man, so far as is known, had no other means of conveyance by water than was afforded by a canoe dug out of the stem of a tree. Although such rude boats might in calm weather serve as the means of transporting a few individuals at one time across a river or narrow strait from one shore to the other, they can scarcely be regarded as fitted for an extensive migration of people; still less as a means of conveying their pigs, dogs, goats and oxen. Hence one is led to the hypothesis that, after the sea had submerged the intermediate land of interglacial times, there had been a subsequent elevation so that Britain again became a part of the continent of Europe. If one may use the expression, a "Neolithic land bridge was produced, continental relations and climate were for a time re-established, and a free immigration of Neolithic man with his domestic animals became possible. This may have been at the period when an abundant forest growth in Scotland succeeded the elevation of what is now called the 100-foot terrace. There is no evidence of the presence of Neolithic man in Scotland until about that period. Before this island with its surrounding and protecting silver streak" settled down to the present distribution of land and water, there are ample data, as is shown by the three sea beaches at different levels seen so distinctly on the coast of Scotland, that frequent oscillations changed the relative positions of land and sea to each other.

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From the consideration of what may be called the biological data, the conclusion seems not to be justified, that because climatic changes had led to a disappearance of certain character- | istic Paleolithic mammals, but by no means of all, therefore Paleolithic man had vanished along with them. When Neolithic man reached Western Europe, he in all likelihood found his Paleolithic predecessor settled there, and a greater or less degree of fusion took place between them. Hence, as the present inhabitants of Britain may claim the men both of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages as their ancestors, it is possible that as Neolithic man migrated northward into Scotland he may have carried with him a strain of Paleolithic blood. W. T.

PROGRESS OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

A REVIEW of the progress of technical education in the United Kingdom during the year 1896-97 is given in the tenth annual report of the National Association for the Promotion of Technical and Secondary Education. A general idea of the present position of the technical education movement may be obtained from the subjoined extracts from the report just issued.

Technical Education in England.

It is pleasing to be able to record that, in the year 1896-97, the total amount of money available under the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890, and distributed to the local authorities, was larger than in any previous year, and that a further advance has been made as regards its utilisation for educational purposes.

Of the 49 County Councils in England 41 are now giving all and eight are giving part of their grants to educational purposes, while of the 61 County Borough Councils 55 are devoting all and six are devoting part of the fund in a like manner. In the county borough of Preston a noteworthy advance has been made. In this locality a new technical institute, erected by, the Harris Trustees at a cost of about 20,000/., has recently been opened, and the County Borough Council, by voting a

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sum of 500/. in aid of technical education in the borough, have now retired from that position of isolation which they had hitherto occupied. At the present time, therefore, all the County and County Borough Councils in England are utilising the provisions of the Technical Instruction Acts.

In considering the amount of money devoted one way and another, it may be stated that, of the total of 807,000l. now available in England alone, no less a sum than 740,000/. is being spent upon education. It is worthy of note that London's share of the fund now reaches 185,000/., of which a sum of 150,000/. is being utilised for educational purposes, a growth of 30,000l. as compared with last year's vote. Therefore, looking at the position as a whole, it is clear that education continues to receive financial support of an extending character.

In last year's report particulars were given respecting local authorities contributing funds to education in the form of rate aid. The information then published went to show that there were at least 137 localities providing a total sum of 34,000/. in this manner. To these figures must now be added a further 23 authorities raising 5000/., thus making an aggregate number of 160 local authorities levying rates, or voting lump sums from the rate-fund, to the extent of 39,000l.

The extent to which local authorities and responsible committees in England have built, or are building, or are about to build, technical schools is shown by the fact that the number of such schools thus initiated now reaches 161, of which 146 involve a capital expenditure of 1,730,000!. This sum is exclusive of about 500,000l. absorbed by the establishment of polytechnic institutions in London. It is worthy of notice that in Burslem, Chesterfield, Dewsbury, Keighley, Plymouth, Rochdale, Southport and Walsall the necessary funds for building purposes were provided entirely by voluntary contributions, and that in Lancaster, Northwich, St. Helens, Sandbach and Winsford sites and technical schools have been presented to the local authorities by private individuals; it may be estimated that, with the exception of Lancaster and Sandbach, concerning which complete information is not available, the financial provision which has thus been made in eleven localities represents a total of 137,000/. Of the aggregate number of technical schools mentioned above, 100 are already at work, 26 new schools, situate in 13 different counties, having been opened during the past year; the localities in which the largest of these new schools are to be found and the amounts spent upon the buildings are--Leicester (40,000/.), Preston (20,000/.), Darlington (16,000/.), Oldham and West Hartlepool (15,000/. each), Darwen (14,000/.), Swindon (13,000/.), and Handsworth and Northwich (10,000/. each). There remain, therefore, 61 technical schools which, according to the latest information, are still incomplete; but it must be understood that this number includes localities where technical schools have been transferred to the local authorities and where new schools are also being built.

In Bradford the technical college, upon which has been spent no less than 155,000l. (50,000l. for buildings and 105,000/. for maintenance), mainly provided by private munificence, now receives an annual grant of 28757. from the Corporation; in Huddersfield, the Governing Body of the technical college have recently decided to proceed with considerable extensions to the present buildings at an expenditure, including the cost of furnishing, of 12,000/.; in Keighley, the mechanics' institution was founded in 1825, a new building, costing nearly 20,000l., was erected by public subscription in 1870, and an additional wing was built, at an outlay of 11,000l., in 1887. Hitherto there has been but one instance of a local authority divesting themselves of their powers of direct control, namely that of Burnley, where the County Borough Council, having established a technical school at a cost of 4000/., transferred the management of the same to the Committee of the local mechanics' institution, the Committee receiving an annual grant of 1000/. from the Council.

During the year ended March 31, 1896, the expenditure, excluding capital outlay, upon agricultural education by thirty-six County Councils in England reached a total sum of 58,3494.

According to the latest annual report of the Board of Agriculture, the amount of money applied to this branch of technical education by the County Councils of England (including Monmouthshire, but excluding Derbyshire, the Soke of Peterborough and the Southern Division of Buckinghamshire) during the year 1896-97 was estimated to be 78,000l., which sum includes capital expenditure.

Progress in Wales.

The whole of the sum of 38,000l. available under the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890, is devoted to the purposes of intermediate and technical education, together with an estimated sum of 20,000/. raised by rate under the Technical Instruction Acts, 1889 and 1891. In addition to these sums, an amount of over 17,000l. is raised under the provisions of the

Welsh Intermediate Education Act, 1889, which sum is met by a contribution from the Treasury not exceeding the amount payable out of the county rate, and based upon the efficiency of the schools aided by the local authorities. The total sum which is annually appropriated to intermediate and technical education in Wales is, therefore, about 92,000l.

In Cardiff, by an agreement between the Corporation and the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, the entire responsibility of providing technical instruction is placed upon the college, in consideration of a large annual grant, together with all fees and grants earned by, or on behalf of, the students. The work of the college in this connection comprises the maintenance of a large number of evening science and art and technical classes, a women's technical department, and a higher technical department, and the establishment of scholarships and studentships.

Expenditure on Technical Education in Scotland.

Of the total amount of 39,000l. distributed to local authorities under the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890, an estimated sum of 28,000/. is devoted to technical and secondary education. This, with the addition of an amount of 60,000l. available under the provisions of Section 2 of the Education and Local Taxation Account (Scotland) Act, 1892, makes the total sum devoted to technical and secondary education in Scotland 88,000/., excluding those sums which are applied to technical education by six School Boards out of the school fund under the Technical Schools (Scotland) Act, 1887.

The Position of Ireland.

The year 1897 has been one of disappointment to those interested in technical education in Ireland. In February a large and representative deputation, organised by the Technical Education Association for Ireland, waited upon the LordLieutenant. His Excellency, who was much impressed by the influential character of the deputation, and the arguments which they advanced, announced that it was the intention of the Government to introduce a Bill in the coming session which would deal with agricultural instruction, and promised to use his influence with his colleagues to introduce a Bill dealing with technical education at the earliest possible opportunity.

This promise was fulfilled, for not only was a Bill introduced to create a Board of Agriculture and Industries for Ireland, but provision was made in the Budget for an endowment of technical education. But the hopes, which the action of the Government raised, were doomed to disappointment. The Agriculture and Industries (Ireland) Bill, being unfavourably received by the Irish Members of Parliament owing to its financial clauses, was withdrawn; an announcement was made by the First Lord of the Treasury that as an alternative policy a Local Government Bill would be introduced during the following session, and the provision made in the Budget for technical education was otherwise appropriated.

At the end of November a still larger and more representative deputation, organised by the Dublin Chamber of Commerce, and representing all the Chambers of Commerce, the principal municipalities, and the leading agricultural and industrial organisations of Ireland, waited on the Chief Secretary for Ireland and pressed upon the Government the need of establishing a Board of Agriculture and Industries during the forthcoming session. The strongest representations were made as to the urgency of the matter. But the Chief Secretary, though admitting the urgency, informed the deputation that the Government were pledged to the Local Government Bill, and that it would not be fair to buoy up those interested in the movement with the hope that there was any reasonable prospect that the Government would be able to deal with two first-class Irish measures in the one session. The encouraging feature about the situation is that public opinion is thoroughly aroused upon this question, and there is, therefore, no fear that the matter will be allowed to drop.

Early in the year the Lord-Lieutenant appointed a Commis

sion to "inquire and report with a view to determining how far, and in what form, manual and practical instruction should be included in the educational system of primary schools under the Board of National Education in Ireland." The Commission have held sittings in the principal Irish towns, as well as in England and in Scotland, and have sent experts to report upon the position of manual and practical instruction in connection with elementary education in Germany and France. It is ex

pected that their report will be submitted to the Lord-Lieutenant sufficiently early in the year to allow the Government to make provision in the estimates to carry out the recommendations of the Commission.

UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.

PROF. G. KRAUSE, of Halle, has been appointed ordinary professor of botany to the University of Würzburg, in the place of the late Prof. J. Sachs.

AMONG the measures to be laid before the Prussian Diet during the session opened on Tuesday is one on the vexed subject of disciplinary procedure against University Lecturers. In the Speech from the Throne this is alluded to as a "legislative regulation of the circumstances concerning the position of University lecturers."

THE Duchess of Fife opened the new Municipal TechnicaSchool at Brighton on Saturday last. The Duke of Fife, re plying on behalf of the Duchess to a vote of thanks passed to her Royal Highness, remarked that in establishing the school Brighton had placed itself in line with all the great centres of population in the country, and showed itself alive to the great educational necessity of the day.

SPEAKING at the annual dinner of the Yorkshire College, Leeds, on Friday last, Lord Londonderry said that England was only slowly waking up to the fact that a technical, as distinguished from a commercial or literary, education was becoming more and more essential every day. A great deal had been done by the Yorkshire College, which had to deal with a county vast in its dimensions, and containing within its limits every variety of trade industries. The College had come to the assistance of all these industries. It had rendered valuable assistance to dyeing and weaving as well as to the application of art to the textile industries, and thanks to the grant by the Clothworkers" Company of 50,000l. for the establishment of this department, no less than 2500l. a year was expended to make the College the first weaving and dyeing school in the country. Many more such institutions as the Yorkshire College are needed before technical education is sufficiently provided for the needs and requirements of the country.

TEACHERS of science and science classes in higher-grade and public elementary schools, held a meeting on Friday last in the rooms of the Society of Arts. Mr. C. J. Addiscott, President of the National Union of Teachers, occupied the chair; and in his opening address he remarked that what is needed at the present time is a sound, workable system of technical instruction, based upon science and art teaching, which itself must be based upon a solid foundation of primary instruction. He discredited the idea that our primary system should be so moulded that it should lead necessarily to a secondary system, believing that the needs of the class with which they had to deal were outside what he conceived to be secondary education, and that the satisfaction of those needs would be found in the development of the primary system through the higher-grade Board school or The organised science school on to the technical institute. main factor for successful progress in this direction must be a know the needs and the difficulties of each class at each stage of central authority, which should be sympathetic, which should the journey. A number of resolutions were passed, one of them being opposed to the recent action of the Science and Art Department in giving instructions to inspectors to report any case where 25 per cent. of the first year students leave the schools at the end of the year, or more than that percentage of the second year students leave at the end of the second year, in order that the department might consider whether such schools should continue to be recognised as schools of science.

THE Association of Directors and Organising Secretaries for Technical and Secondary Education met on Friday last at the Guildhall, Westminster. Mr. C. II. Bothamley (Somerset) was

elected chairman, Mr. Hewitt (Liverpool) vice-chairman, Mr. J. H. Nicholas (Essex) secretary, and Mr. Turner (Staffordshire) treasurer. The places of the three remaining meetings for 1898 were fixed to take place at Birmingham, Sheffield, and London. In the course of an address, the chairman remarked that the Association had repeatedly expressed its acceptance of the recommendations of the Royal Commission on Secondary Educa tion and had expressed the opinion that they formed a satisfactory basis for legislation. Latterly they had heard a great deal about the essential importance of constituting a central authority for education before anything else was done in the matter. The constitution of an efficient central authority could properly be brought about by the reorganisation of those Government departments that dealt at present with educational matters, a reorganisation along the lines of the Royal Commission's report. They found it to be inconvenient in practice in many ways to have two entirely separate departments, one of which they were brought into contact with in connection with evening continuation schools, and the other more and more frequently in dealing with secondary schools They wanted to see these two departments merged more or less completely into one, with their functions properly defined, and capable of dealing with secondary education as a whole, as well as with the purely scientific and technical part of it. The other part of the central authority-the educational council-was a body to which the scholastic profession naturally attached great importance. The Association thought that one of the great needs of the present time was a system of schools corresponding fairly closely with the higher primary schools of France-schools which should be a real top to the elementary education. He concluded by moving "This Association considers that legislation on the lines of the report of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education is very urgently needed at the present time." Mr. Turner seconded, and, after a short discussion, the resolution was adopted.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

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American Journal of Mathematics, vol. xx. No. 1, January. 'The motion of a solid in infinite liquid under no force," by Prof. Greenhill, examines the elliptic function expression of all the dynamical quantities involved, and explores the analytical field by working out completely the simplest pseudoelliptical cases to serve as landmarks, utilising the analysis which the author has developed in his paper on Pseudo-Elliptic Integrals and their dynamical applications," in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society (vol. xxv.) and carrying out his work on the lines of his papers on the Dynamics of a Top" and on the "Associated Motion of a Top and of a Body under no Forces" in vols. xxvi. and xxvii. (Proc. L.M.S.), Reference is made to the sketch of the theory in Thomson and Tait's "Natural Philosophy," and to a complete solution in the case of a solid of revolution in Kirchhoff's Vorlesungen über Math. Physik, ix. ; and to the "Motion of a Solid in a Liquid,' by Dr. T. Craig.-" Surfaces of Rotation with constant measure of curvature and their representation on the Hyperbolic (Cayley's) Plane," by G. F. Metzler. Minding (Crelle, vols. 19, 20) shows that it is easy to obtain the formule which express the relations between the sides and angles of a triangle of which the sides are geodesic lines on a surface of rotation with constant measure of curvature. Mr. Metzler shows that the same method holds for the formula expressing the area of the triangle (i.e. in the ordinary spherical formulæ put a for the radius of the sphere).-"Sur les Méthodes, d'approximations successives dans la théorie des Equations différentielles,' par E. Picard, is a note, taken by the editors of the Journal from M. Darboux's "Théorie des Surfaces (à la fin du tome iv.).—M. Darboux is the mathematician whose likeness accompanies this number.

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Bollettino della Società Sismologica Italiana, vol. iii., 1897, Nos 5, 6.-The microseismographs of the Institute of Physics of the Royal University of Padua, by G. Pacher. A reprint of a paper giving a full account of the Vicentini microseismographs, already noticed in NATURE.-The Latian earthquake of May 8, 1897, by G. Agamennone. A note on a series of slight shocks felt in the neighbourhood of Rome. -The Royal Geodynamic Observatory of Catania, by A. Riccò.-Notices of earthquakes recorded in Italy (April 27-May 14, 1897), by G. Agamennone, the most important being the series of Latian earthquakes of May 8, and an earthquake of distant, but unknown, origin on May 1.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.

LONDON.

Royal Society, December 9, 1897.-"On Methods of making Magnets independent of Changes of Temperature; and some Experiments upon Abnormal or Negative Temperature Coefficients in Magnets." By J. Reginald Ashworth, B. Sc.

The object of this paper was to find what kinds of iron or steel are least liable to changes of magnetic intensity of a cyclic nature under moderate fluctuations of temperature, such as take place in the atmosphere from one season to another. The subject is of importance for the sake of improving magnetic instruments, but apart from its practical consequences the investigation points to some interesting theoretic

consequences.

In general the effect of alternately heating and cooling a magnet is to cause a large loss of magnetic intensity, which is only in part recovered; ultimately a cyclic state is established in which the changes may be expressed by a formula which in conformity with custom is here written I I (I-at't), I standing for the magnetic intensity, and for the cold and hot temperatures.

Hitherto a, the temperature coefficient of the magnet, has been found to be positive; that is to say, the effect of a rise of temperature is to diminish, and a fall of temperature to increase the magnetic intensity. A negative coefficient must be understood, therefore, to represent a rise and fall of magnetic intensity with rise and fall of temperature, and this abnormal effect has now for the first time been observed to be general in certain

cases.

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In the first place the influence of chemical composition was sought in determining the behaviour of a magnet under changes of temperature, and steel alloys severally of manganese, tungsten, cobalt, and nickel were tested, as well as a series of cast irons of different blends of pig irons. The results obtained show that the influence of chemical constituents is subordinate to that of physical condition, annealing or hardening. Thus a kind of nickel steel, the same as Dr. Hopkinson found to yield such remarkable thermo-magnetic results, exhibited in the glass-hard state a small increase of magnetic intensity with increase of temperature and decrease with fall of temperature. annealed the converse effect took place, and these effects could be changed repeatedly by changing from hard to soft and soft to hard. Again cast iron, in the condition received from the foundry, has a very large magnetic variation for a given range of temperature, but when hardened by heating and rapidly chilling the variation becomes exceedingly small, the coefficient now being about th its former amount. As hardened cast-iron magnets have also a very high permanent magnetic intensity, and are very little influenced by shocks and blows, it will be seen that they have exceptionally valuable qualities.

However, the most interesting results were obtained from some steel music wires which happened to be put to the test. These wires in the normal condition and when the cyclic state is established, after experiencing the usual permanent magnetic loss, exhibit a negative coefficient, the higher and lower intensities now corresponding to higher and lower temperatures, and they are thus quite exceptional. But, in contrast with the similar behaviour of the nickel steel alloys just mentioned, the negative coefficient is destroyed and a positive coefficient established if the wire be raised to a bright red heat and cooled either very slowly, as in the process for annealing, or rapidly as for hardening. If heated, however, to about a dull red and quenched, the coefficient can then be rendered just zero.

In order to gain some insight into the cause of this abnormal negative coefficient, the wire was dissolved in nitric acid and at different stages of dissolution tested. This led to the important relation, which was afterwards fully established in every possible way by a series of laborious experiments, that the longer and thinner the wire the more negative is its coefficient; and so much does the coefficient depend on the ratio of length to diameter, or dimension ratio, that by suitably altering the dimension ratio the sign of the coefficient may be changed; and for some particular dimension ratio, for a given kind of steel wire, the coefficient may be made zero, and the magnet is then independent of temperature changes.

The diagram exhibits these changes graphically. Curve (1) represents the variation of the coefficient from positive to negative for steel music wire of diameter o 187 centimetre, and of

lengths 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 centimetres corresponding to dimension ratios 16, 32, 48, 64, 80 and 96.

Curves (2) and (3) represent similar changes in different steel wires, where the dimension ratio was varied by altering the diameter of the wire and keeping the length constant.

of the initial subsidiary system is possible, and of equations for which the extended method must be used.

The third of the three sections deals with those equations of which the characteristic invariant is irresolvable. Of such equations the most interesting examples are the potential equation and other equations in mathematical physics; and the theory is applied to some of these equations in detail, leading to some new solutions.

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An almost identical curve to No. 1 is obtained by plotting against the dimension ratio the percentage permanent magnetic loss each piece suffers due to the process of alternate heatings and coolings; and as this is, without doubt, dependent on the self-demagnetising force in the magnet, it is evident the coefficient is also a function of the demagnetising force, and is principally varied by this, at least for a given range of dimension ratios.

The ultimate cause determining the abnormal negative coefficient in steel music wires of large dimension ratios is not yet completely made out, but experiments now in progress seem to indicate that it is the effect of the drawing in the process of manufacture.

"A Note on some further Determinations of the Dielectric Constants of Organic Bodies and Electrolytes at very Low Temperatures." By Prof. James Dewar, F.R.S., and Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S.

December 16, 1897.-"Memoir on the Integration of Partial Differential Equations of the Second Order in Three Independent Variables, when an Intermediary Integral does not exist in general." By A. R. Forsyth, F.R.S, Sadlerian Professor in the University of Cambridge.

The memoir discusses the theory of partial differential equations of the second order in one dependent and three independent variables; and the method adopted is seen, without difficulty, to be applicable to equations which involve more than three independent variables and which can be of order higher than the second.

In order to solve a given equation, a system of subsidiary equations is constructed; and the system is made up of two parts. One of these parts is a set of simultaneous partial differential equations in two independent variables and a number of dependent variables, this number being one more than the number of the equations. An integral equivalent of this part accordingly contains an undetermined quantity. The other of the parts is a set of equations in a single independent variable; it appears that the set of equations in the second part can be consistently satisfied by a determination of the unknown quantity emerging from the first part.

The first of the three sections, into which the paper is divided, deals with the general theory, and indicates a method whereby subsidiary equations for an equation F = o of any degree in the derivatives of the second order can be constructed. If integrable combinations of the subsidiary system are not obtainable, an extension of the method shows how equations of higher order (when obtainable) can be deduced and associated with the given equation.

The second of the three sections deals with those equations of which the characteristic invariant is resolvable; and some examples are given, alike of equations for which the integration

"On the Occlusion of Hydrogen and Oxygen by Palladium." By Ludwig Mond, Ph.D., F. R.S., William Ramsay, Ph.D., F. R.S., and John Shields, D Sc., Ph.D.

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Palladium black prepared in the same way as platinum black contains 165 per cent. of oxygen, which cannot be removed in vacue at a dull red heat. On heating in atmosphere of oxygen the amount absorbed up to a red heat was about one and a half times as much as corresponds with the formula Pd,O, and this also could not be extracted at a dull red heat in vacuo.

A comparative study of the occlusion of hydrogen by palladium black, sponge and foil was made; and, after taking into consideration some observations made by Graham and Dewar, it was found that no matter whether the palladium exists as black, sponge, foil, wire, or compact metal, or whether it is charged by direct exposure to hydrogen gas (the proper conditions being observed, as explained), or charged electrolytically, the amount of hydrogen occluded in each case is approximately the same, the atomic ratio palladium : hydrogen varying between 137 and 1'47.

The bulk of the hydrogen occluded by palladium black and sponge can be pumped off again at the ordinary temperature in

vacuo.

The heats evolved per gram of hydrogen and oxygen occluded by palladium black are+ 464 K (4640 g-cal) and + 112 K (1120 g-cal) respectively, the latter value being in harmony with the view that the absorption of oxygen is a true phenomenon of oxidation.

With respect to the supposed formation of a definite chemical compound on the occlusion of hydrogen, it is shown that Troost and Hautefeuille's deduction that Pd,H is formed is not warranted. If any hydride is produced at all, it probably contains at least as much hydrogen as that required by the formula PdgH, first suggested by Dewar.

It is also shown that the heats of occlusion of hydrogen in platinum and palladium black are not in favour of the view which has sometimes been put forward, that the heat of occlusion o: a gas represents the heat of condensation or liquefaction of the gas in the capillary pores of the absorbing substance.

Linnean Society, December 16, 1897.--Frank Crisp, Treasurer and Vice-President, in the chair.-Mr. W. Carruthers, F.R.S., exhibited and made remarks upon a fungus, Rossellinia ligniaria, which had been found to attack living ash trees, eventually causing the death of the tree. Additional observations were made by Mr. George Murray and Prof. Farmer.Mr. Edward Step exhibited two specimens of a Hermit Crab, Eupagurus Prideauxi, from Portscatho, Cornwall. Both were found naked and in rock-cavities, and special interest attachel to the fact that, in the absence of the well-known molluscar. shell which the species affects, each specimen was incrusted at precisely the same regions of its exterior by " acorn-shells."The Rev. T. R. Stebbing gave an account of the habits of this and other species of the genus Eupagurus, directing special attention to the work of Aurivillius; and Prof. Howes remarked that it was on record that in the absence of a shell the bowl of a clay-pipe did not come amiss to these animals, and that they will readily utilise broken test-tubes.-Mr. H. M. Bernard read a paper on the affinities of the Madreporarian genus Alveopora. The question discussed was one of much interest, owing to the claim advanced by Dana, that Alveopora is a survival of the great Paleozoic family Favositude. This claim was rejected by

Milne-Edwards and Haime, but nevertheless was founded on close similarity of structure. Other important characters in common were now indicated, viz. the similarity of the earliest growth-stages and of the method of budding. These were described, and it was urged that there was now no reason to doubt the relationship between Alveopora and Favosites other than that which arose from the immense interval of time which had elapsed since Favosites flourished and from the scarcity of intermediate forms. One only had been described, viz. the genus Koninckia from the Cretaceous. Mr. Bernard then discussed the relationship of Alveopora with the recent Poritide, in which family it is usually classed. The author contended that Alveopora and Poritide stand about as far apart as possible in the madreporarian system, and with regard to the evolutionary stages of the madreporarian skeleton he concluded that the original columniform polyp must be considered to have had the lower portion of its body clothed with a stiff secretion which formed a cup into which the upper flexible portion could be invaginated This epithecal cup was the primitive madreporarian skeleton. Within this cup-mainly by infoldings, at first simple, but soon increasing in complexity-a new internal skeleton had been developed which had largely superseded the primitive epithecal skeleton. This internal skeleton, he thought, was as much a product of the epitheca as the apodematous systems of Arthropods are products of the chitinous cuticle. A discussion followed, in which the Chairman and others took part.-Messrs, H. and J. Groves communicated a paper on some Charace collected by Mr. T. B. Blow in the West Indies, one of which appeared to be new to science. Specimens of the plants described were exhibited.

PARIS.

Academy of Sciences, January 3.-M. A. Wolf in the chair.-M. Van Tieghem was elected Vice-President for the year 1898.-M. Chatin, the outgoing President, announced the changes in the Members and Correspondents during the year 1897.-General method for determining fundamental stars and latitude, by M. Loewy. A further developement of the method announced at the previous meeting. Histogenetic influence of an anterior form, with respect to the regeneration of Descemet's membrane, by M. L. Ranvier. It is known that the introduction of a single crystal into a solution has a considerable effect in causing crystallisation, and the present observations tend to show that an analogous phenomenon may take place in organic tissues. Observations were made upon the growth of the membrane of Descemet and its endothelium in the cornea of a rabbit, after partial destruction by incision and by a needle. In the latter case, where the corneal layers attacked by the needle have given an irregular surface, the endothelium, instead of forming a simple cellular layer, appears in the form of small masses, in which several layers of cells can be seen. The definition of endothelium thus requires considerable modifica. tion. On the determination of the first terms of flexure of a meridian instrument. Application to the meridian circle at the Observatory of Paris, by MM. W. Ebert and J. Perchot.-On the conformable representation of one surface upon another, by M. G. Souslow. On the velocity of propagation of a movement in a medium at rest, by M. P. Vieille. A description of experiments upon the velocity of the wave produced by exploding varying charges of powder and fulminating mercury in a steel tube. The figures obtained show that as the initial condensations increase, the mean velocities of propagation on a length of four metres also increase from values about the velocity of sound up to four times that speed. -On a new method of interferential spectroscopy, by MM. A. Perot and Ch. Fabry. The interferential spectroscope is composed of two plates of plane glass with silvered faces opposed, the distance and orientation of which can be exactly regulated. The rings produced are observed at an infinite distance, the system being lighted by a slightly converging bundle of rays. With this apparatus M. Michelson's statement that the green ray of thallium is double has been verified. On the mechanism of the discharge of conductors struck by the X-rays, by M. G. Sagnac. The surface of a metal, M, struck by the X-rays emits new rays termed secondary rays of the metal M. Each element of volume of gas adjacent to the metallic conductor is rendered capable of conducting electricity, both by the incident X-rays and by the secondary rays.-On a simple method for directly transforming typographical plates and other objects in feeble relief into photographs, by M. Adrien Guébhard.—On the isocyanic ethers and the heat of formation of liquid isocyanic acid, by M. Paul

Lemoult. The heats of formation were determined of the isocyanates of methyl and ethyl by the method of the calorimetric bomb.-On a new cyclic ketone methylcylohexonone, by M. A. Béhal. This ketone is one of those obtained from wood oil. Oxidation with potassium permanganate gave only acetic and levulic acids. The benzoyl derivative and oxime were prepared. -Preliminary note on the origin of the subrenal capsules of lophobranchial fishes, by M. Huot. The subrenal capsules have been usually regarded as arising from the epithelium of the coelom, but the study of the development of these organs in the embryos of Syngnatus Dumerilii, leads to the conclusion that they arise from two sunk diverticula each of which is a bud from the posterior portion of a Wolf's canal.-On the origin of the setigerous bulbs and the nephridia in Annelids, by M. Aug. Michel. In the caudal regeneration of the Annelids, the setigerous bulbs are ectodermic and the setigerous sacs are mesodermic; the nephridia are of a neutral origin, ectomesodermic. AMSTERDAM.

Royal Academy of Sciences, November 27, 1897.-Prof. van de Sande Bakhuyzen in the chair.-Prof. van der Waals gave an approximate rule for the course of the plaitpoint-curve of a mixture. The curve constructed according to the rule given will correspond very closely with the actual plait point-curve in the case of all those mixtures, which present the circumstance that a maximum or a minimum tension occurs, if the components have a certain ratio to each other, as is the case with mixtures of NO and CH The curve for the said mixtures, according to Kuenen's observations, is explained in all its details by this rule.-Prof. Moll on an inquiry by Mr. Van Wisselingh into the nucleolus of Spirogyra. The principal results of this inquiry are: (1) besides the usual form of karyokenesis Spirogyra crassa, Kutz, has also a second form, in which no nuclear segments are produced; (2) in the division with segmentation ten out of the twelve segments originate in the nucleus itself, while two originate in the nucleolus; (3) in the case of nuclear division with segmentation the nucleolar segments have each a resistant thread, by which they are distinguished from the rest. The resistant threads divide longitudinally, like the segments themselves, and the two halves contribute in the daughter nucleus towards the formation of the new nucleolus. In the case of nuclear division without segmentation the nucleolus also produces two resistant threads, which in the division behave in exactly the same way as in karyokenesis with segmentation.—Mr. Eykman on the influence of the seasons on combustion of nutritive matter in man. The speaker communicated the results of a comparative inquiry into the respiratory exchange of gases in winter and in summer. With the nine persons, upon whom he experimented, the speaker found the average consumption of oxygen, when they were in a state of bodily rest, to be no smaller in summer than in winter, and concludes, also, on the ground of previous investigations made by him in India, that in man there exists no appreciable chemical regulation of heat.— Prof. V. A. Julius presented on behalf of Mr. N. G. van Huffel a short paper on magnetic hysteresis in a long soft iron bar. Round the middle of the bar was a primary coil; a secondarycoil could be placed at various distances from the primary one. At a certain moment, varying from 1/3 to 2 seconds after the primary circuit was closed, the secondary one was for 5 second brought in contact with a ballistic galvanometer. It appeared that the rate of change of induction reached a maximum at a certain distance from the middle of the bar, and that the maximum displaced itself with the increase of the time from the middle towards the ends of the bar.-Prof. van Bemmelen communicated on behalf of Mr. Schreinemakers the results of an inquiry into the equilibrium in systems of three components, in which two and three liquid phases occur.-Prof. Kamerlingh Onnes presented on behalf of Dr. W. van Bemmelen a paper, entitled a provisional notice of new acquisitions of older observations of magnetic variation, among others by Parmentier in 1529, Cavendish in 1587, and by French navigators in the Pacific about the year 1700."-Prof. van der Waals presented (a) on behalf of Prof. Dibbits a paper by Dr. A. Smits, on an instrument for keeping the tension above a boiling liquid constant. The space in which the space is to be kept constant, is connected with a U-shaped barometer. When the pressure decreases, the mercury rises in the shorter limb and, in consequence of this, a galvanic circuit is closed, through which a blowing-apparatus is put in action; when the pressure increases, a sucking-apparatus is put in action by another galvanic circuit. When the oscilla

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