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PRICES (the Numbers give Magnifying Power)No. 6, £5. No. 8, £5 10s. No. 10, £6. No. 12, £6 10s. ILLUSTRATED PRICE LIST AND PARTICULARS POST FREE.

Why buy foreign prism glasses when the Aitchison

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THE

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EVOLUTION THEORY

BY

DR. AUGUST WEISMANN

PROFESSOR of ZOOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY of FREIBURG IN BREISGAU.

Translated, with the Author's co-operation, by

J. ARTHUR THOMSON,

REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN, and

MARGARET R. THOMSON.

With a large number of Illustrations and Three Coloured Plates.

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INSTITUTION.

IN this SOCIETY are combined the ADVANTAGES of Mutual Assurance with Moderate Premiums.

The Premiums are so moderate that at most ages an Assurance of £1,200 or £1,250 may generally be secured from the first for the same yearly payment which would elsewhere assure (with profits) £1,000 only.

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THURSDAY, DECEMBER 1, 1904.

DAI NIPPON.

Dai Nippon, the Britain of the East, a Study in National Evolution. By Henry Dyer, D.Sc., &c. Pp. xvi+450. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd., 1904.)

THE

HE story of how Japan jumped from what she was to what she now is will always form one of the most remarkable episodes in the history of material civilisation. Not only is it this, but it is also a remarkable illustration of the results that can be achieved by occidental education fostered by and implanted on a system of oriental ethics.

This story, under the title of "Dai Nippon," or "Great Japan," is told by Dr. Henry Dyer, who for about ten years was principal of the College of Engineering in Tokyo. From it we learn that Japan has taken from Europe and America every concrete aid to progress on which she could lay her hands, and in return for this she now offers a code of morals. When we realise that it is Japanese ethics which are at the base of Japanese character, and that these ethics led to the desire to acquire European knowledge, they

commend themselves for close consideration.

We may give water to a horse, but to make him drink is another matter. In a similar manner we may cover a country with schools, but to induce people aho have neither the ability nor desire to learn to take advantage of such schools is a formidable task. The Japanese had ability in a marked degree. Their extraordinary power of memorising, which the few Europeans who have noticed the same have only regarded as an abnormal curiosity, may possibly be the resultant of committing to heart the sayings of eastern sages and endless idiographs. A philosophy which had sunk into the hearts of the people while many Europeans still revelled in a feral state no doubt played its part in the suggestion that it was advisable to fall in line with western progress. The main lever, however, which forced Japan from its insular Utopia into the neverending struggle amongst the comity of nations was the feeling that national and personal honour had been affronted. A civil war was ended, the Tokugawa party had been defeated, and the feudal barons had been united under the Emperor who still reigns. Internal dissensions had ceased, but western demands had settled like a cloud upon the nation. Treaties had been made with thirteen States, each of which had its courts of justice; Japan was powerless to fix its tariffs; Yokohama was policed by a British regiment, and gations kept their guards. In these and other direcnons Japan felt that, notwithstanding she possessed a culture about which the man in the street is yet prooundly ignorant, she was humiliated and looked down upon as an inferior. Buddhism and Shintoism had resulted in an extraordinary patriotism and loyalty, while the "Bushido " of the "Samurai " gave a system of moral principles "which entered more deeply into the national life of Japan than do those of the religion we profess into Western civilisation."

Among these ethical teachings those bearing upon

wisdom, benevolence, and courage were preeminent. Wisdom meant intellectuality rather than mere knowledge. Benevolence resulted in social relationships, so that beggars are practically unknown, whilst State aid for the poor is seldom sought. Courage embodied the idea that it is better to die for one's country rather than yield. Commerce had always been looked down upon as a low pursuit. A nation saturated with such ethical teachings was naturally proud of her autonomy, and sought to escape from occidental restrictions. The escape she chose was by an education in western utilitarian knowledge, wisely backed by an army and a navy.

In 1868, when the present Emperor ascended the throne, he took an oath embodying five principles, the objects of which were to act as beacons in the ocean of international struggles of the world. In the fourth of these we read that "all purposeless principles and useless customs" were to be discarded, whilst the fifth directs that "knowledge and learning shall be sought after throughout the whole world, in order that the status of the Empire of Japan may be raised ever higher and higher." When this announcement was made the education of Japan chiefly consisted in memorising Chinese classics and characters, learning to reckon on the abacus, and studying history and edicts. Knowledge relating to science and its applications was almost non-existent, and we can well imagine the doubts of those who were entrusted with the administration of the imperial command as to the courses they should follow. In 1871 a department of education was created, and with it schools of various grades were established throughout the country. The children of the lower classes, including females, were admitted, while the schedules of study of preexisting schools were re-modelled. At the present time it may be said that Japan bristles with schools, and that there is not an ignorant family in the country.

A child, possibly commencing at a kindergarten, is admitted to a common school at the age of six. After four years he passes to a higher grade school, where there is also a four years' term. Above this there is a middle school with a five years' term. Graduates from this school can by competitive examination pass to one of six higher middle schools, above which stand two imperial universities, in connection with which there are colleges of literature, science, medicine, engineering, law, and agriculture. The number of elementary schools is 27,109. Usually no fees are charged, but in special cases the local governor may allow charges varying between 2}d. and 5d. per

month.

In the training of children moral education takes precedence of instruction in facts of practical use in daily life. Bodily development is not neglected, but good manners and etiquette rank higher than minds stored with information.

In the secondary schools, although mathematics, natural history, physics, chemistry, and other subjects are taught, we again find-and find in institutions of all grades that "morals " (without religious dogma) head the list. It is clear that the Japanese want good citizens, citizens who recognise the symbol of authority

rather than practical demonstrations of the same. In Japan a crowd will halt before a straw rope on which flutters a tiny paper notice. In Europe police and truncheons might be required. The good manners of the East are hardly so superficial as popularly imagined. They are the outcome of their philosophy emphasised by special training, the end of which is "to cultivate your mind that even when you are quietly seated not the roughest ruffian can dare make an attack on your person."

In

The higher secondary schools are preparatory to the universities, the objects of which are to teach "such arts and sciences as are required for purposes of the State." To each is attached a university hall, which is established for purposes of original research. the six colleges forming the university the professors and assistants number 245, and the students 3121. The entrance fee is 2 yen, and the annual tuition fee is 25 yen (1 yen=25.). For those who cannot proceed❘ to the universities, industrial, agricultural, commercial, and other technical schools have been established. In 1902 there were 845 such schools, attended by 55,596 scholars. The expenditure on these in 1902 was 2,739,297 yen, of which 285,253 yen was State aid. The total annual expenditure by the Government in connection with the educational department is roughly six million yen (600,000l.).

In addition to the schools mentioned, Japan has its naval, military, art, and music schools. Over and above these, again, we find educations in departments of life which in Europe have received but little attention. Chess, or rather "go," clubs are common throughout the country, and for proficiency in the game certificates are awarded. Certificates can also be obtained in the art of flower arrangement, an art which has its terminology and canons, but which in Europe finds its perfection in "studied negligence."

In connection with education, a point which Dr. Dyer has not emphasised, but which is in strict accordance with the imperial edict of 1868, is that the Government keeps up a stream of its best educated men flowing round the world, each being a specialist, visiting countries and institutions with the object of gathering together what is valuable in his own vocation. Originally it was the Japanese student who was sent abroad; now it is the professional man. You may not know it, but often he may be able to give more information than he receives. Generally speaking, in Dr. Dyer's words, the Japanese Government finds that money spent on education is a good national investment.

The chapters devoted to industrial development, the army and navy, commerce, politics, and other subjects are as interesting and full of information as those bearing upon education.

With regard to the future of Japan, Dr. Dyer tells us that his ideas are decidedly optimistic, and he believes that in material, intellectual and moral influence Japán will fully justify her claim to be called the Britain of the East." So far as the concrete adjuncts of civilisation are concerned, Japan might be pleased could she be on the same platform as her ally, but it is doubtful if she aspires to much more. Her 46 millions of people have smiling faces, their

courtesy and politeness have attracted the attention of all travellers, they are scrupulously clean and see a bath-tub every day, to show anger is to put yourself on a level with a dog, and should two persons have an altercation, for one to dub the other as a "shaba fusagi" or an "impeder of the world's progress" would be an epithet not to be forgiven. The courage of her soldiers needs no comment, while the endurance of a "jinricksha "man, who for a week can pull a heavy European with his baggage 40 or 50 miles per day, is, from an occidental point of view, quite phenomenal.

The Japanese are temperate, frugal, modest, and happy, while the world knows that they possess artistic instincts. In many directions a Japanese is distinctly superior to the European. The nation has a soul, and if we reflect on the components which make up that soul--the soul of Ruskin-it seems that in certain directions European countries might be benefited if only they were able to raise themselves to the level of Dai Nippon. Although by the opening of the country much has been gained, there are many signs indicating that the blessings have not been unalloyed. Commerce, competition, and the accumulation of wealth have been accompanied by increasing poverty, whilst those whose vocations have been at the open ports have acquired the manners of those with whom they came in contact. So far is this marked that a Japanese who has been a servant in a European house may be handicapped in obtaining similar employment amongst his own people. To say the least, he has become too brusque. Side issues of this nature may cause a nation to regard with regret the disappearance of old conditions, but, taking all in all, Japan has gained more than she has lost. She is no longer a pupil, but a teacher.

SYLVESTER'S MATHEMATICAL PAPERS. The Collected Mathematical Papers of James Joseph Sylvester. Vol. i., 1837-1853. Pp. xii+650. (Cambridge University Press, 1904.) Price 18s.

net.

THE appearance of this volume is very welcome for

more reasons than one. Sylvester's papers were published in a variety of journals, and generally contained a considerable number of misprints; they will now be available in an attractive form, with their accidental blemishes removed by a very careful and competent editor. The work of preparing these papers for the press must be troublesome and tedious, and the thanks of mathematicians are due to Dr. Baker for having undertaken it. Special attention should be directed to the note at the end of the volume on Sylvester's theorems about determinants, some of which require correction.

The papers here published range in date from 1837 to 1853. The first three relate to mathematical physics; but Sylvester soon followed his natural bent, and all the rest of this volume is pure analysis, mostly algebra. Historically, the most notable results are those on elimination, canonical forms, and the theory associated with Sturm's method of locating the real

roots of equations. Moreover, there is the paper on the contacts of lines and surfaces of the second order, where the invariant factors of a matrix are recognised, and the system of two quaternary quadratics is considered in detail with reference to the simplest simultaneous reduction of the forms.

Appreciations of Sylvester's character and of the value of his mathematical work have been written by able hands, and it is unnecessary to enlarge upon them here. His egotism was obvious and often amusing, but never offensive; his enthusiasm was refreshing, and though his temper was touchy, he was very generous and kind. As a master of formal analysis he has few equals; the birth of the calculus of invariants occurred just at the right time to attract his attention, and his contributions to this subject alone are enough to make him famous. He had the instincts of an architect, and it is well, on the whole, that he did not always trouble to clear away the chips. The casual remarks scattered about his papers and the fragmentary nature of some of them, help to make the reading of them very stimulating; he takes us into his confidence, shows us how his ideas arose, and gives us hints of unexplored regions. He was eminently original, and spent little time in studying the works of his contemporaries; thus he did not even realise that his theory of reciprocants had been more than anticipated by others, especially by Lie. But any misunderstanding arising from this source must have been

parts of the subject may be. Quite apart from other reasons, the study of pure mathematics may be defended, like that of music or chess or painting, from the merely æsthetical side, and this Sylvester does in terms both vigorous and quaint. For example :

"The fortunate proclaimer of a new outlying planet has been justly rewarded by the offer of a baronetcy, and a national pension, which the writer of this wishes him long life and health to enjoy. In the meanwhile, what has been done in honour of the discoverer of a new and inexhaustible region of exquisite analysis?" the latter reference being to Cayley's discovery of the calculus of invariants. Fortunately Cayley was saved in another way from the cares of money-making, and he lived long enough to realise to the full his great reputation among those who would appreciate his work. Sylvester in his early life suffered unjustly from the current prejudice against his race; so far as it was possible this was afterwards atoned for, and it is to be hoped that no bitter feeling was left behind.

G. B. M.

MENTAL AND SOCIAL MEASUREMENTS. An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurements. By Edward L. Thorndike, Professor of Psychology in Teachers' College, Columbia University. Pp. xii+212. (New York: The Science Press, 1904.) Price 1.50 dollars net.

long since dissipated, and his place among the great AMERICAN colleges seem more awake than our

mathematicians of his time is quite secure. Sylvester's occasional notes on the theory of numbers and his lectures on partitions suggest problems to those who are interested in arithmetic. The present volume, for instance, contains three notes on cubic Diophantine equations, a subject not yet exhausted, though Sylvester's own theory of resideration

throws much light upon it. The late Henry Smith once referred to this problem as being one which might be hopefully attacked with the engines of modern analysis; perhaps the appearance of this edition of Sylvester's works may lead to the discovery of a complete theory.

A good example of Sylvester's power of illuminating and drawing general conclusions from the simplest mathematical problem is the note (p. 392) on an elementary geometrical theorem for which no direct proof had been discovered. He observes that the proof may be made to depend on showing that a certain analytical equation has no real root, and suggests that in all such cases where the analytical proof consists in demonstrating the non-existence of roots, the geometrical proof must necessarily be indirect, while in other cases the reductio ad absurdum may be convenient, but is not necessary. This observation reminds us at once of Gauss's discussion of the division of the circle, and if Sylvester's conjecture is true it gives another case of the curious points of contact that exist between analysis and geometry.

It is not to be expected, or even desired, that many should share Sylvester's keen delight in the beauty of formal analysis; but it is a mistake to discourage those who are inclined to enjoy it, however unpractical

own to the fact that the newer methods of statistics have made it possible to deal with facts with with far more completeness than was practicable a few which they are directly concerned, and to discuss them years ago. They are making in consequence large collections of anthropometric data to serve as tests of health and development, and for comparisons between

colleges. Again, there are more teachers in America the above methods have far wider applicability, extend than in this country who, appreciating the fact that the range of their measurements to psychophysical subjects. They are also eager to deal with purely psychical matters that elude direct measurement but their proper class places, or to utilise a third and still admit of being arranged by mutual comparison into more general method, which deals with such objects as can be sorted into a few distinct classes without re

gard to their internal arrangement. The author is fully justified in saying that

morality, enthusiasm, eminence, efficiency, courage, "The obscurest and most complex traits, such as legal ability, inventiveness, can be made material for ordinary statistical procedure, the one condition being that the general form of distribution of the trait in question shall be approximately known."

In these circumstances a system of elaborate measurements has come into vogue in many American colleges. Whether the authorities have always planned their measurements wisely, and whether they discuss them adequately and accurately, will not be considered here. The volume is written to direct and to warn, in doing which it reveals some grave blunderings. Unfortunately, it is composed chiefly for those persons who are ignorant of even simple mathematics.

The

author is fully conscious of the serious embarrassments of the position he has chosen, but bravely attempts the well-nigh impossible task of overcoming them. Thus he says:-

"If this book were written by a mathematician for the mathematically minded, it would not need to be one fifth as long. If read by such a one it may well seem intolerably clumsy and inelegant."

Whether he succeeds under these difficulties in giving easily intelligible explanations may well be doubted; indeed, his language, though frequently lucid, is often quite the reverse. Still, if the volume were used as a text-book in the hands of an enthusiastic and capable teacher good results might follow, but it requires an optimistic disposition to believe that it would prove more than superficially instructive, if it were intelligible at all, to the mass of ordinary and unassisted readers. The author might, however, claim a higher rank for it than he has done on the ground that it teems with instructive illustrations by which everyone may profit, and that it presents familiar ideas from slightly new points of view, much to the advantage of even well instructed readers.

There is no science more handicapped by cumbrous and repellent terminology than that of the higher statistics. Its ideas are not always intrinsically difficult to grasp, but the phrases by which they are expressed are both ugly and unexpressive. The writer believes that a student, however mathematically minded he may be, would save himself time and annoyance if he prefaced his earliest studies by a few hours of what might be called kindergarten exercises with beans, acorns, or the like. By the process of sorting them into arrays and picking out the medians, quartiles, &c., then by measuring them individually and extracting from the measures the remaining statistical constants, he would soon obtain a serviceable familiarity with the more elementary technical terms and the ideas they represent. It would be easy to devise a suitable course that would prove a welcome help to students who are enthusiastic about measurements, and it is to be hoped that the next writer on popular statistics will elaborate one.

The author gives a large number of frequency polygons, derived from a wide variety of data, which are of interest. It is to be wished that attempts were more frequently made to reduce the variously shaped polygons obtained by experience into a few classified types, to append to each type the names of the objects that had been found to conform to it, and to analyse the causes of its shape in each instance. It is difficult to doubt that by so doing some desirable help would be given to the interpretation of any new polygon. It is perfectly true that almost any curve or polygon may be built up in various ways by different types of curve or polygons appropriately superposed, but experience alone will tell whether there is not a much greater probability of such and such a type being due to such and such combinations rather than to others. Through these means many hypothetical sources of origin might be found so rare as to be hardly worth considering, and so the field of probable interpretations would be narrowed. Speaking generally, the inter

pretation of results is a branch of statistics that has hitherto received less attention than it deserves. It is no doubt a great thing to be able to describe groups and to determine correlations between them with precision, but this is not all that is wanted. It is another and even more important achievement to dissect and analyse results and to discover the dominant caus that produced them, but the art of doing this seems as yet inadequately developed and to offer a promising field for research. F. G.

OUR BOOK SHELF.

By

Practical Chemistry, a Second Year Course. G. H. Martin, M.A. (N.D.). Pp. 41. (Bradford: G. H. Martin, The Grammar School.) Price 15. MR. MARTIN has arranged in an unpretentious form a most excellent syllabus of experiments and examples suitable for boys beginning the study of chemistry.

It is satisfactory to find that, in a school of such high standing as the Bradford Grammar School, the science master has seen the wisdom of devoting a whole year (it is to be hoped it will be extended to a second year) to teaching the simple facts which underlie important principles without recourse to tests and tables.

One suggestion may be offered. If the book is to have a wide circulation, which it certainly deserves, it will be necessary to fill in the outline of experiments, and perhaps to illustrate the results by actual examples, possibly in a companion volume.

Boys cannot be expected to work out details of apparatus in the short time allotted to science during school hours if substantial progress is to be made. No doubt the author has his apparatus set up and gives an appropriate demonstration to the class, but this will not help those teachers who wish to profit by the book unless their technical difficulties are solved for them. J. B. C.

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Ir very often happens that photographic negatives require a certain amount of careful manipulation owing to defects caused by photographic methods, scratches, &c. It is also desired sometimes to eliminate small defects due to slight movement of the object, or to alter or improve portions of the picture to attain a desired end. The author has endeavoured in these few pages to place before the reader the different methods and devices that are in use to cope successfully with the various defects that may be encountered. In the first instance the tools required are described, is then shown how, in the case of portraits, to preserve and the special objects of each explained. The reader the likeness but yet to eliminate the blemishes caused by optical or chemical or other action; he is here introduced in a few words to the elements of facial anatomy. The author has considered it necessary to insert fessionals, in which the main principle to be kept in a special chapter on retouching portraits of proview is to produce a beautiful face. To attain such an ideal, mouths are reduced, jaws cut down, ears knifed, eyes enlarged, and various other surgical operations performed. Working up draperies, retouching landscapes, preparing prints for the press, and how to make a portable retouching desk, form other topics for treatment. The book should serve as an admirable guide to amateurs, and will be found useful to those who go more especially into this class of work. | Numerous illustrations accompany the text.

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