This great revolution originated in the disorder suddenly produced in the empire under the dominion of the Sultan Mu hamed Schab. This prince, when he as cended the throne, meditated the conquest of the world; he aspired, according to the oriental authors, to equal Alexander the Great. With this view he attempted to invade Corassan, and the countries on the north boundaries of India. His enter. prize having failed, the governors of the الامام الاعظم ابوا لمجاهد سکندر شاه tunity of rendering themselves indepen ابن الياسر شاه السلطان "The magnanimous Imam, the powerful Sekander Schah, son of Elias Schah, Sultan." Reverse. provinces availed themselves of this oppor dant. Such was the origin of the troubles which, from that period, never failed to desolate India. Muhamed Schah endea. voured in vain to subdue the rebels; Bengal opposed to him a determined resistance. So soon as Elias Schal assumed the go يمين خليفة الله ناصر امير المومنين .all the attributes of sovereign power خلد الله خلافته "The right hand of the Khalif of God, Protector of the Commander of the Faithful. God perpetuate his khalifat." The legend of this piece is clipped, one can scarcely distinguish a part of the letters, but I think I can perceive that it was coined also at Sonargonou. Sekander, Elias Schah and his son whose names are on these coins, were the two first kings of their race that reigned in Bengal. Elias Schah seized the government by the sacrifice of Ala-eddin, who reigned before him. This event happened about the year of the Hejra 743, or A. C. 1342. The first of those who became sove reigns of Bengal, commenced his authority by the assassination of the delegate who held the government under the authority of the Sultan of Dehli. This man, after reigning little more than two years, was assassinated by Ala-eddin, who, in his turn, met a similar fate from Elias Schah. This succession of assassination was thus the work of some years. Bengal, until this period, had been a province of the empire of the Sultans of Dehli. The whole of Hindoostan and part of the Dekkan composed this empire. The country that gave the first signal of independance was Bengal, and its example was soon followed by the revolt of the Dekkan, Guzzuret, &c. About this period the empire of the Sultans of Dehli became dismembered, and this immense power did not recover itself until the 16th century, under the Mogul Emperor Akbar. vernment, he took the title of Sultan, and As he was always exposed to be attacked by the Sultan of Dehli, he fixed his residence in the western frontiers of his dominions, towards Dehli, and selected for his metropolis, the city of Pandoua, the foundations of which he had recently laid at a short distance from the ruins of Gour, not far from the banks of the Ganges. His fears were not without foundation. Muhamed Schah dying in 752 of the Hejra, or in A. C. 1351, Firouz Schah, his successor, came two years afterwards with powerful forces against Bengal. At his approach, Elias Schah abandoned his capital, and shut himself up in the fortress of Akdaly, where he sustained a siege; fortunately for him, the Sultan of Dehli was, at that time, compelled to proceed elsewhere, to appease the troubles which had broken out in several parts of his dominions. During this combination of circumstances, the Sultan of Dehli satisfied himself with some presents from the Ferishtah relates besieged and retired. that on this occasion, Elias Schah acknowledged himself vassal of the Sultan of Dehli. This event happened towards the year 756, or 1355 A.C. Elias Schah ap pears then to have reigned peaceably till his decease in 759, or A. C. 1358, when he was succeeded by his son Sekander Schah. On this intelligence being communicated to Firouz Schah, he thought it a favourable opportunity to recover possession of Bengal. He accordingly advanced to Pandoua, and took possession of it. Se kander Schah following his father's example, had retired to Akdaly, and whilst he was there, beseiged, he succeeded in gain. ing the good graces of Ferouz Schah, and persuading him, by the force of presents, to retire. From that period, Bengal became entirely detached from the empire of Dehli. Sekander Schah died in peace in his kingdom, leaving his crown to his son, Gaiaith-eddin, and this principally preserved itself until the sixteenth century. The most remarkable circumstance which the princes of this fine country experienced was finding their territory considerably restricted towards the west, on the establishment of the kingdom of Djonpour, near the confluence of the Ganges and of the Djemna, towards the end of the fourteenth century. These kings of Djonpour, are what the Indian authors denominate kings of the east, because, in fact, their states were situated east of Dehli. Speaking in general terms, there is nothing more obscure than the history of these particular principalities of India. What we have said of them here we have extracted from the Persian Historian Khon. demir, and from Ferischtah, a writer of Indian origin.t A circumstance which appears singular in the legends of these coins is, the mention of a khalif, and of a commander of the faithful, when we know that there never was a khalif in India,-that no khalif at Bagdad had, at that time, existed for a century past-and that those of the same family, who had established themselves in Egypt, under the protection and authority of the Mamelukes, were held in very little.consideration. It is, nevertheless, evident that the khalif here alluded to, was held in great veneration by the princes of Bengal. This khalif is incontestably the khalif of Egypt. This great revolution in religion, was the work of Muhamed Schah, Sultan of Dehli, the same under whom Bengal became independant, and it was, by following his example, that the King of Bengal, and the other Musulman princes of India, successively submitted themselves to the spiritual authority of the khalifs of Egypt. *In his Habib Alsiar, vol. iii. folio 110. This work is in Persian, and in manuscript, at the King's Library at Paris. In his General History of India, folio 790. This work also is in the King's Library at Paris, in Persian manuscript. Asiatic Journ.-No. 101. The Sultan of Dehli, after his unfortunate expedition to Korassan, and the revolt of several provinces, seeing every where troubles and disasters, imagined that the wrath of God was kindled against him: he imagined that his disasters originated in the neglect, which, until that time, he and his predecessors had manifested towards the khalifs of Egypt. Khondemar seems to say, that this prince was ignorant until then, that there existed at Cairo, a Musulman pontiff, who inherited the right of conferring empires and kingdoms.* It might be observed, in objecting to Khondemar, that, at the epoch here spoken of, and a long time before the commercial relations between India and Egypt were very frequent, that all the spices which were consumed in the west were shipped at the ports in India, and arrived at Alexandria, by the Red Sea, and the eastern coast of Africa. Therefore, one can hardly believe that they were, in India, quite ignorant of the existence of the khalifs of Egypt. It may, however, be admitted as probable, that considering the little renown of these khalifs, they might not have been heard of at the court of Dehli. However this may have been,-from the instant that Muhamed Schah had knowledge of this family of pontiffs, he made a religious scruple of exercising any longer his authority. He offered to the khalif the homage of his crown, considering him as the only legitimate sovereign on earth, and the one, of whom he ought to hold his authority. By the advice, therefore, of his courtiers and of the doctors of the Musulman faith, he sent immediately, by sea, an ambassador to Cairo, and waiting his return, he caused his own name to be effaced from the coins to substitute that of the khalif; and he even proclaimed, as illegitimate, all his predecessors, who had not provided themselves with the investiture of the Egyptian khalifs, without excepting even his own father. In the mean time, the deputy arrived at Cairo, and requested of the khalif, the confirmation of Muhamed Schah in his dignity. We can easily judge with what agreeable surprise the chief of the Musulman faith saw himself thus suddenly treated as sovereign, and dispenser of the kingdoms of India, a prince who did not possess a single village in Egypt, and who, like the present muftis of Constantinople, was incessantly on the eve of being deposed. He, therefore, readily granted every thing that was asked, and on his return to Dehli, the scruples of Muhamed Schah began to subside. This prince then ordered the name of the khalif to be pronounced in the prayer on Friday (the Musulman sabbath) in the mosques throughout the empire. During the remainder of his life, he never failed to maintain a regular communication with Egypt. On hearing that one of the kha. lif's family was coming to his states, he went out to meet him, received him with great respect, and presented him with land to a considerable extent. His successor, Firouz Schah, followed his example, and during a long period, the khalifs of Egypt were highly respected at Dehli. It would appear, after such devotedness, that the khalif ought to have assisted the Sultan of Dehli in his efforts to reduce the rebels to their duty, or at least, that the Sultan would have endeavoured to engage him in such an affair: but no trace of such an event is to be found in the Oriental writers. On the contrary, if we may be allowed to draw a conclusion from some affairs which they transacted, we might observe, that the khalif treated equally well all those who addressed themselves to him on similar occasions. They asked to have granted to them, investiture and other gifts, which cost almost nothing. They offered, in return, to recognize his authority, which could not be very formidable at so great a distance. He consented to every proposition. It is certain, according to the report of Ferischtah, that this khalif protected the usurper who had assumed the power of the Dekkan. With regard to Bengal, for want of more precise intelligence, our coins prove that the name of the khalif was in great veneration with Elias Schah, and with his son it necessarily follows, that the princes had been well received, otherwise, they could not have taken the titles of the right hand and protector of the commander of the faithful. This is the expression of Ferishtah, viz. The name of khalif had, unquestionably, made a strong impression on the minds of Mussulmans of India, for soon after this, following the example of the Sultan of Dehli and the Kings of Bengal, there was scarcely any Musulman prince who did not think the intervention of the khalif necessary to legitimate his authority. This state existed during the two centuries which elapsed after the reign of Muhamed Schah, A great number of princes of India, and they even say of Khatai, sent their deputies to the khalif of Cairo, some to be confirmed in their governments, whilst others demanded to have a kind of Musulman missionaries, for the purpose of instructing their subjects in the doctrine of Muhamed.* The town of Sonarganou, which is on our coins, is situated near the banks of the Barhampouter, it is the same as that which the English writers denominate Soonargong. It appears to have been formerly a very important place. We read, in Ferischtah, that when the governors of Bengal departed from Dehli to that province, they received orders to govern Bengal, and to guard diligently the town of Sonarganou. It appears that this town, by its position north of the Ganges, formed, on that side, the boundary of the province of Bengal, against the incursions of the people of the north. Mr. Hamilton informs us, that the governors of Bengal resided at Sonarganou, and that Elias Schah was the first who quitted that town to establish himself more to the west; it would then necessarily lose much of its importance. Neverthe theless, all things tend to establish, that, when Elias Schah retired to Pandoua, he left at Sonarganou, not only the mint, but several other considerable establishments. It should be observed, that Pandoua, by its advanced situation towards Dehli, was always exposed to fall into the power of the enemy, whilst Sonarganou, by its distance, had nothing to fear on that side. However that might have been, it is well ascertained that this last town was, during * Several examples of this kind of instruction will be found in the Mémoires sur l'Egypte, de M. Et. Quatremère, tom. ii. page 286; extracted from the Arabian author Makrizy. † Under the article of Sultans of Dehli, reign of Mohammed Schah. A Geographical, Statistical, and Historical Description of Hindostan and the adjacent coun 198 .iries, fat vol. p متضمن تفوید ممالک هندوستان * a long period, celebrated for its manufacture of cotton cloths. Hadje-khalfa, the Turkish geographer, speaks of them in his Djihan-numa. Still, in the sixteenth century, under the emperor Akbar, it was the chief place of one of the Circurs, or particular districts of Bengal.* But the town of Dakka having been built in its neighbourhood, the inhabitants of Sonarganou began to quit it; its industry was transported elsewhere, its edifices disappeared, and it soon dwindled to a pitiful village; so that an English traveller, who passed by this plain in 1809, declares, that at that epoch, there were no remains of it. Thus pass away towns as well as empires. In no part of the world are such revolutions so frequent as in India; their mode of building with earth and bamboos is such, that sometimes, in a few years a great city is built, which falls still more rapidly. A great book might be written of the simple notice of all the towns, which during some ages have governed in India, the ruins of which are now sought by travellers. An interesting question to resolve presents itself. What is the origin of those titles, partly pious, and partly pompous, which were assumed by the kings of Bengal? We answer, that they were desirous, above all to imitate the Sultans of Debli, their former masters. From the period when they declared themselves independant, was it not natural that they should assume, or appropriate to themselves, the titles and qualities assumed by the ancient Sovereigns of Hindostan? It was the means of satisfying the vanity, and of imposing on the people, by these glorious surnames. What we here assert is proved by the coins of the Sultans of Dehli. We will now endeavour to determine the origin of these epithets. In the comparisons which we have made on this subject, we are in possession of resources that no one has hitherto had. Coins of the Sultans of Dehli, anterior to the invasion of This circumstance is mentioned in the "AynAkberi, ou Tableau Historique, Topographique, et Statistique, de l'Hindoustan sous Akbar." The original manuscript of this work, which was presented to Akbar, was in the possession of the late M. Langlès, and it is in this MS., page 162 recto, that we find the name of Sonarganou. † Vide Memoir of a Map of Hindostan, by Major Rennel, page 57. * Vide M. Hamilton's work, in the page before quoted. the Moguls in the sixteenth century, were never known in Europe till now. As to ourselves, we have had at our disposition, some of these ancient monuments, but unfortunately, they are limited to a very small number. But what has been considerably more useful to us is, that we have received a communication of the drawings of medals collected fifty years since in India by Colonel Gentil. We mean not to say that Gentil's collection is complete; but, excepting two or three Sultans, there has not reigned at Dehli, and in the north of India, since the fourth century of the Hejra, or the tenth of J.C., till the last century, any emperor who has not provided Gentil's collection with, at least, one medal. On these drawings and on the history of the princes to whom they refer, a work of considerable labour has been performed, which will shortly appear with the description of the Oriental medals of the Duke de Blacas. The titles of sultan and victorious, which are taken by Elias Schah, are found also in the medals of Dehli. As for two Arabic words which are translated victorious, they properly mean father of victory. We might even translate them, Abou'lmodaffer, i. e. father of Modaffer. In that case, Modaffer would have been one of the sons of Elias Schah, and the father might have taken this title, in imitation of many Musulmans, who like to be called by the name of their sons; this explanation, however, does not appear natural, for no Oriental author has mentioned any son of Elias Schah named Modaffer; but as this reason would be insufficient, we should still consider that more than one Musulman prince appears to have taken this title, without ever having had a son of that name. There is scarcely a modern sovereign of Persia or India, who has not arrogated to himself this epithet, either on his coins or on other monuments. Must we then suppose, that all these princes have had sons named Modaffer? Why should they constantly notice this son in preference to all the others? Why do we not on these medals, father of Abbas, father of Soliman, and many other names mentioned in history? In general, the custom of calling one-self, father of one's son, is scarcely ever practised by sovereigns, at least (as it appears to us), we have not seen any such example on any medals or monuments whatever, always understanding that we refer here to modern ages; for, with regard to ancient times, it certainly has been otherwise. The title of second Alexander, or new Alexander, is still borrowed from some medals of Dehli: it offers, of itself, a clear interpretation. It is not in Greece and at Rome alone, that the name of Alexander has enflamed the ambition, or the insane pride of princes! There have been found in India, men, who following the example of the Emperor Caracalla, have fancied themselves called upon to act the part of the Macedonian hero. It appears, however, that the name of Alexander no longer awakens in the mind, those romantic ideas which it formerly did. Since the fifteenth century, several potentates of Asia have qualified themselves with the title of Second Sahibkeran, from the name of Sahib-keran, which Tamerlane took; a term, which signifies, born under a fortunate constellation: but no one, since the above-mentioned period, has (that we know of), assumed the name of second Alexander. This change in sentiments has been felt, not only in India, where the Mogul emperors, descended from Tamerlane, were interested in setting forth the glorious renown of that conqueror; for it is discovered, even in Persia, where the same interest to elevate the glory of the Tartarian monarch, did not exist. We may, therefore, suppose that the name of Alexander could no longer maintain itself before the fortune of Tamerlane. Thus are all things mutable on the earth, every thing passes away, even the glory of conquerors. Finally, the words of Second Alexander, present a signification unknown to the people of the east, for they say not in the east, Mahomet I. Mahomet II., as we say Henry VIII. or George III. But when there is a succession of princes in the same empire, of the same name, for example, the name of Mahomet, they distinguish them by the name of the father: thus, they say, Mahomet, son of Aly, and sometimes, to make the distinction, as Mahomet* is a common name, it is necessary to bring in the grandfather, as Mahomet, ben Abdallah, ben Ismael (Mahomet, the son of Abdallah, the son of Ismael). But, to return to our subject; in the present case, to authorize Elias Schah to call himself Alexander the Second, he must have had two names at once, Elias and Sekunder, or Alexander; moreover, there must have reigned before him in Bengal, a king named Alexander, which cannot possibly be admitted. No doubt the titles of right hand of the khalf, of protector of the commander of the faith, belonged also to Mohamed Schah, Sultan of Dehli; it was him, in fact, who first brought the khalif of Egypt to light, and gave up to him, as it were, the dominion of India. To whom could such title be more agreeable, than to such a prince? In this, he was imitated by the kings of Bengal, who knew well, in fact, that these titles engaged them to nothing. The title of protector of the commander of the faithful is also perceived on the coins of some Muhamedan princes of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries of our era; at a period when the khalifs of Bagdad had every thing to fear from some neighbouring princes. The title of Zealot in the service of God, which is taken by Sekander Schah, son of Elias, in No. 3, is derived from the coins of Firouz Schuh, Sultan of Dehli, his cotemporary. The same ought to be observed of the term, strong by the power of God, which we read on the coins of Mohamed Schah, Sultan of Dehli. We know of these medals, only through the drawings of Colonel Gentil. We ought also to acknowledge, that it was only by the means of these drawings, that we were enabled to decypher the last title on our medal, which was very imperfect and difficult to read. It remains for us to explain the title of Zealous, which more literally translated, would be father of Zeal, the same as above, futher of Victory. The word " which we translate zeal, appears to us to be substituted for. In fact, we صاحب المجاهدات find the words on a medal of Babour, among the drawings of Gentil, we might also translate, father of Moudjahed; but, besides the reasons above alleged, respecting the words, |