salutarius: the occurrence of this epithet along with others referring to the beauty and order of the universe is confirmatory of the MS reading distinctionem utilitatem in II 15. The comparative sal. is said to be απ. λεγ.

Ba. (2). Again, when it is said the regular movements of the stars prove them to be divine, it is simply the regularity of nature; on the same principle we should call tides or intermittent fevers divine. S$ 23, 24.

ne stellae quidem: weak sense, as above § 21, see Index.

quas tu innumerabiles: 'in countless numbers'. For the inclusion of an adjective, belonging to the antecedent, in the relative clause as a subpredicate, cf. II 89 natura quam cernit ignotam, II 136 calore quem multum habent, III 93 deos qui a te innumerabiles explicati sunt.

reponebas: 'you were for reckoning among the Gods'. On the regularity of the heavenly movements cf. II 43, 49, 51, 54–56, esp. 54 quae cum in sideribus videamus, non possumus ea ipsa non in deorum numero reponere n.

§ 24. omnia quae-ea: see Index under Pleonastic Demonstrative.

Ch. x. Euripo: the currents of the Euripus were proverbial, but rather as signifying irregularity than the opposite; cf. Plato Phaedo 90 πάντα τὰ ὄντα ἀτεχνῶς ὥσπερ ἐν Εὐρίπῳ ἄνω καὶ κάτω στρέφεται καὶ χρόνον ovdéva év ovdevì μévet, Aeschin. Ctes. p. 66 (of inconstancy) #λeious τраñóμενος τροπὰς τοῦ Εὐρίπου παρ ̓ ὃν ᾤκει, Arist. Eth. IX 6 τῶν τοιούτων (the good) μένει τὰ βουλήματα καὶ οὐ μεταῤῥεῖ ὥσπερ Εὔριπος, Liban. Ep. 533 μý μe voμions Evрinov, Cic. Mur. 35 quod fretum, quem Euripum tot motus, tantas tam varias habere putatis agitationes commutationesque fluctuum, quantas perturbationes et quantos aestus habet ratio comitiorum? Liv. XXVIII 6 fretum ipsum Euripi non septies die, sicut fama fert, reciprocat, sed temere in modum venti, nunc huc, nunc illuc verso mari, velut monte praecipiti devolutus torrens rapitur. A story grew up in later times that Aristotle, then living at Chalcis, put an end to his life through vexation at his inability to explain the cause of these currents (Justin M. Coh. ad Gent. 36, Eustath. ad Dion. Perieg. 475, cited by Ideler on Arist. Meteor. II 8). The account given in the Dict. of Geog. is as follows: 'It remains but a short time in a quiescent state, changing its direction in a few minutes and almost immediately resuming its yelocity, which is generally from four to five miles an hour either way. The results of three months' observation afforded no sufficient data for reducing the phenomena to any regularity'. Strabo says of it (IX p. 618) πepì dè tîs ñadippolas toû Evpínov τοσοῦτον μόνον εἰπεῖν ἱκανόν, ὅτι ἑπτάκις μεταβάλλειν φασὶ καθ ̓ ἡμέραν ἑκάστην καὶ νύκτα· τὴν δὲ αἰτίαν ἐν ἄλλοις σκεπτέον. Pliny, after giving an account of tides generally, adds (11 97) quorumdam tamen privata natura est, velut Tauromenitani Euripi et in Euboea, septies die ac nocte reciprocantis.

Mela however (II 7) says it ebbs and flows seven times in every twelve hours, cf. Seneca Herc. F. 377, Herc. O. 779, Troad. 838. The word got to be used of any channel (Xen. Hell. 1 6 § 22) and hence of a conduit, as in Cic. Leg. II 2 ductus aquarum quos isti nilos et euripos vocant. On tides see above II 19 nn. [Cf. Aesch. Αg. 191 παλιῤῥόχθοις ἐν Αὐλίδος τόποις. Swainson.]

freto Siciliensi: the word fretum is sometimes used distinctively of the straits of Messana. Strabo tells us some explained the currents there by the supposition that the two seas, of which they formed the junction, were on different levels, διὰ τοῦτο τοὺς εὐρίπους ῥοώδεις εἶναι, μάλιστα δὲ τὸν κατὰ Σικελίαν πορθμόν, ὅν φησιν (Eratosthenes) όμοιοπαθεῖν ταῖς κατὰ τὸν *Ωκεανὸν πλημμυρίσι τε καὶ ἀμπώτεσι· δίς τε γὰρ μεταβάλλειν τὸν ῥοῦν ἑκά σTηs ημépas kaì VUKTós foll. Thucydides (IV 24) seems to identify it with the Charybdis of Homer, διὰ στενότητα δὲ καὶ ἐκ μεγάλων πελαγῶν τοῦ τε Τυρσηνικοῦ καὶ τοῦ Σικελικοῦ ἐσπίπτουσα ἡ θάλασσα ἐς αὐτὸ καὶ ῥοώδης οὖσα eikóτws xaλetǹ évoμion. Allen cites Lucr. 1 721 angustoque fretu rapidum mare dividit undis Italiae terrarum oras a finibus ejus (Siciliae). Lucretius also uses the word metaphorically in IV 1030 and VI 364, where Munro says 'fretus expresses at once the strait joining two seas and the swell and surging common in such cross-seas'. See Varro quoted on fretorum

angustiae II 19.

fervore boiling', as in Lucr. vI 437 prorumpitur in mare venti vis, et fervorem mirum concinnat in undis.

Europam Libyamque: the fretum Gaditanum or Herculeum. The line, which is assigned to Ennius Ann. VIII by L. Müller p. 34, is also cited in Tusc. I 45 ii qui Oceani freta illa viderunt, Europam &c. It was near Gibraltar that Posidonius investigated the phenomena of the tides, see above II 19 nn.

vel Hispanienses vel Britannici: 'either on the coasts of Spain or Britain'. We have seen above (II 19 n., cf. Strabo III 5 p. 261) that Aristotle explained the Atlantic tides by the peculiar nature of the Spanish coast. The tides of Britain were noticed as extraordinary by Pytheas (Plin. N. H. II 99), cf. Caesar B. G. IV 29.

fieri non possunt: 'is it impossible for them to occur?' This gives a better sense than nonne read by most мss, which would mean 'may they not occur?'

ordinem conservant: what is the value of the argument from regularity? It shows that there is something more than chance or caprice at work. But constantia is never regarded as being the sole and sufficient reason for belief in the rational government of the universe. It might be the necessary result of some original law of matter. The instances by which Cotta endeavours to throw ridicule upon it are themselves indubitable proofs of a steadily acting cause.

ne tertianas quoque febres: the мs reading quidem is capable of a good sense in itself, limiting the assertion, like Gr. ye, to the particular

kind of fever; but it is hardly likely that Cic. would have used ne quidem in any but the idiomatic sense. I have therefore followed the other edd. in reading quoque. The comparison with intermittent fevers may have been suggested by the common term circumitus (ñeрíodos), see above II 49 and Cels. III 12 eas febres quae certum habent circumitum et ex toto remittuntur. On the kinds of intermittent fevers, quartan, tertian, quotidian, see Plin. VIII 50 certis pestifer calor remeat horis aut rigor, neque horis modo sed et diebus noctibusque trinis quadrimisve, etiam anno toto; Lydus Mens. III p. 51 πλεονάσαντος μὲν πυρὸς πυρετὸς γίνεται, ἀμφημερινὸς δὲ ἀέρος, τριTaîos de vdatos, tetaptaîos dè yñs, Mayor on Juv. Iv 57 quartanam sperantibus aegris. As we read below § 63, febris was deified, though not for the reason ironically suggested here.

reversione et motu: cf. Ac. II 119 motus mutationemque, below § 27, Div. II 94, and see Index under 'hendiadys'.

ratio reddenda est: 'have to be explained'. The Stoic would reply that that was what he meant by calling them divine. The fact that all things were rational proved that the universe was ordered by reason, and to this reason he gave the name of God.

§ 25. quod cum facere-deum: 'in cases where you are unable to give a rational explanation you have recourse to the Deity'.

in aram confugitis: the same metaphor is used by Archytas ap. Arist. Rhet. III 11 ταὐτὸν εἶναι διαιτητὴν καὶ βωμόν· ἐπ ̓ ἄμφω γὰρ τὸ ἀδικούμενον KaтapeúŸeɩ; Caecin. 100 cum homines vincula vitant, confugiunt quasi ad aram in exsilium; p. Red. in Sen. 11 nisi in aram tribunatus confugisset; Verr. II 3 and 8 ad aram legum confugere. We have the literal sense in Tusc. 1 85 Priamum, cum in aram confugisset, hostilis manus interemit.

Ba. (3). The arguments of Chrysippus are equally weak. He uses 'better' in the same vague way, and does not distinguish between reason and nature. It is no presumption in man to believe that he is himself rational and that the stars are composed of brute matter. The comparison of the universe to a house begs the question.

Chrysippus II 16. For et = 'and then' cf. I 50, 93.

25, 26.

callidus: fr. callum 'hardened skin', itself used metaphorically by Cic. Tusc. II 36 ipse labor quasi callum quoddam obducit dolori; hence calleo 'to be hardened', as in Fam. Iv 5 § 2 in illis rebus exercitatus animus callere jam debet atque omnia minoris aestimare; and concallesco 'to become hardened', Att. IV 16 § 10 locus ille animi nostri concalluit. From this sense we get the further meaning 'practised', 'expert', like tritus, тpißwv, тpippa, cf. Catil. III 17 prudentes natura, callidi usu, doctrina eruditi; and the pun in Plaut. Poen. III 2. 2, and Pers. 11 5. 4 vide sis calleas. Callum aprugnum callere aeque non sinam. We find it joined with versutus ('adroit', 'dexterous', 'dodgy') Off. I 108, II 10, III 57, Caecin. 55, 65. For the derivation cf. Plaut. Epid. III 2. 35 vorsutior es quam rota figularis.

But

There is no particular reason for these verbal distinctions here. Cicero was in Augustine's phrase verborum vigilantissimus appensor ac mensor (cited by Trench on Words Lect. 4), of which we have an example in the forms beatitas, beatitudo proposed by him in 1 95; still more in the discussion on the word invidentia (Tusc. III 20), non dixi invidiam, quae tum est cum invidetur, ab invidendo autem invidentia recte dici potest ut effugiamus ambiguum nomen invidiae, quod verbum ductum est a nimis intuendo fortunam alterius, ut est in Melanippo, and so on for some lines; after which he returns to his subject.

igitur: resumptive, see on I 44.

in eodem, quo illa: for the subaudition of the preposition with the relative, when it has been expressed with the demonstrative, see above 1 31 n., Mayor on Cic. Phil. 11 26, Madv. § 323 obs. 1 [also on Fin. 1 32, Fabri on Liv. XXII 33 § 9, Beier on Cic. Off. 1 112. J. E. B. M.].

errore versantur: 'have their being in the same error', cf. 1 43 in maxima inconstantia versantur opiniones; 1 37 Aristonis magna in errore sententia est; Tusc. 1 107 vides quanto haec in errore versentur 'what a mistake underlies all this'.

§ 26. praestabilius praestantius II 16, 45. See below on patibilem, § 29.

quid inter naturam et rationem intersit: what a distance there is between reason (such as we know it in man) and the unconscious operations of nature'. This refers both to the argument of Chrysippus II 16 (in homine solo est ratio &c.) and to that of Zeno just cited.

distinguitur: on the change from the Act. to the Pass. Swainson compares Madv. Fin. II 48.

idemque: Cotta here separates the two arguments which are apparently blended in II 16, where see nn. He has just given the former 'if there is anything in the universe beyond man's power to make, that which made it must be God': he now gives the latter, 'if God does not exist, there is nothing in the universe superior to man; which is absurd'.

sint: Subj. because subordinate to negat esse.

id-nihil homine esse melius: on the explanatory clause in apposition to Demonstrative see above § 7 si id est primum.

Orionem et Caniculam: see nn. on II 113. Canic. is here used for Sirius, as in Hor. Od. I 17, III 13, not for the Lesser Dog-star (Procyon), as by Plin. N. H. XVIII 68 cited on II 114. As usual, Cotta confuse agit. The question is not here as to the divinity of each constellation, but as to the rationality of the universe. Cotta's argument merely comes to this, there are parts of the universe which are irrational and unconscious and therefore inferior to man.

si domus-debemus: see II 17 nn.

aedificatum: cf. nn. on 1 19 aedificari mundum, 1 4 fabricati; and for omission of esse Acad. II 126 ne exaedificatum quidem hunc mundum divino consilio existimo, and Index under 'ellipsis'.

a natura: see on II 33. what remains.

The promise here made is not fulfilled in

Ba. (4). Nor is there more weight in the assumptions that the rational soul of man must have proceeded from a rational soul in the universe, and that the harmony of nature can only be explained on the supposition of one divine Governor. Both are spontaneous products of nature acting according to her own laws. S$ 27, 28.

Ch. XI § 27. unde animum arripuerimus: cf. II 18 nn. and Div. II 26 naturale (genus divinandi) quod animus arriperet extrinsecus ex divinitate, unde omnes animos haustos aut acceptos aut libatos haberemus. The same form of argument is used by F. W. Newman (Reply to Eclipse of Faith p. 26): Being conscious that I have personally a little love and a little goodness, I ask concerning it, as concerning intelligence, where did I pick it up? and I feel an invincible persuasion that, if I have some moral goodness, the great Author of my being has infinitely more' (cited by Mansel Bampton Lectures p. 197).

et ego quaero for the ironical et cf. 1 79 n., below § 82 et praedones, and Cato 25 diu vivendo multa senectus quae non vult videt. Et multa fortasse quae vult.

unde orationem: the same kind of frivolous objection as we had before in § 23. Granted reason, you have its developments and applications.

ad harmoniam canere: cf. II 19 concinentibus mundi partibus n. 'Pythagoras believed that the intervals between the heavenly bodies corresponded to those of the octave and that hence arose the harmony of the spheres, which mortals were unable to hear, either because it was too powerful for their ears, or because they had never experienced absolute silence', Anc. Phil. p. 10; cf. Plato Rep. x 617 'upon each of the eight circles stands a Siren, who travels round with the circle uttering one note in one tone, and from all the eight notes there proceeds a single harmony. At equal distances around sit the Fates clothed in white robes, chanting to the music of the Sirens, Lachesis of the past, Clotho of the present, Atropos of the future'; Zeller 1 398, 11 653, Cic. R. P. vI 18 (after being shown the planets Scipio asks) quis est qui complet aures meas tantus et tam dulcis sonus? Hic est, inquit ille, qui intervallis disjunctus imparibus, sed tamen pro rata parte ratione distinctis, impulsu et motu ipsorum orbium efficitur et acuta cum gravibus temperans varios aequabiliter concentus efficit; nec enim silentio tanti motus incitari possunt...Summus ille caeli stellifer cursus, cujus conversio est concitatior, acuto et excitato movetur sono, gravissimo autem hic lunaris atque infimus...illi autem octo cursus septem efficiunt distinctos intervallis sonos (which we imitate on our musical instruments)...Hoc sonitu oppletae aures hominum obsurduerunt...sicut, ubi Nilus ad illa, quae Catadupa nominantur, praecipitat ex altissimis montibus, ea