This raises the question as to the part played by the nucleus of a cell in its respiratory processes.

Is the source of muscular energy to be sought in oxidation or cleavage processes in tissues? In some animals there is not a direct relation between the muscular work and oxygen consumed, though there is to heat production. Bunge, on this ground, thought that the intestinal parasites of warm-blooded animals must have their oxygen at a minimum. In the intestinal contents there is no estimable oxygen; there active reduction processes go on. Entozoa might get oxygen from O, diffusing from bloodvessels.

Bunge found that intestinal worms of the cat and pike can live in an alkaline solution of common salt, free from gases, under Hg, for four to six days. They made active movements, and gave off much CO,.

Ascaris lumbricoides from the intestine of the pig lived four to six days in 1 per cent. boiled NaCl solution. It made little difference whether oxygen or hydrogen was passed through the fluid. They lived seven to nine days if fluid was saturated with carbon dioxide, so that they have accommodated themselves to high percentages of carbon dioxide.

They give off to the fluid valerianic acid, an acid with a characteristic butyric acid odour. These worms contain a very large quantity of glycogen, the dry body yielding 20 per cent. to 34 per cent. of this carbohydrate.

100 grams Ascaris, placed in boiled normal saline solution, used per day0.7 gram glycogen,

Weinland found that he could express by Buchner's method a substance, "zymase," which could split glycogen into CO, and valerianic acid.

Turning now to respiration in invertebrate animals, and dealing first with those which live in water, let us see some of the contrivances by which this end is achieved. The mechanisms are but means to an end. The ultimate union of oxygen, and the discharge of carbon dioxide with the liberation of energy, occur in the protoplasm of the cell itself.

There are two distinct processes, and it may be that the oxygen is introduced by one portal and the carbon dioxide got rid of by another, or it may be that one portal may do for both processes-the letting in of oxygen and the giving off of carbon dioxide.

Although the principle itself is simple, the variety of mechanisms adopted by nature to secure this double function is remarkable. Let us glance at some of the mechanisms proceeding from the simple to the complex, and first with regard to those animals that live in water.

Consider the oceanic fauna. It is immense both from the point of view of number and variety. Save insects and certain groups of molluscs, all invertebrates are aquatic. Amongst vertebrates, fishes have aquatic respiration, and some mammals, e.g. cetaceans or whales, have water as their sphere of existence, though they depend on the air for their respiratory oxygen.

The evolution from an aquatic to an aërial mode of existence can be traced in the animal kingdom, and may even be seen within limits in the history of certain species. Every living cell, animal or vegetable, requires for its continued existence a supply of oxygen, and every living cell exhales carbon dioxide. The exchange of these two gases between the fluids of the body and the outer medium is the process of respiration. The simplest form of respiratory exchange occurs where there is no specially differentiated organ or mechanism for this purpose, socalled diffuse respiration. The whole surface of the

As regards the surfaces for these respiratory exchanges for diffuse respiration, it may take place through the inner surface of the body cavity of coelenterates, the under surface of the bell of a medusa, the tentacles of an echinus, the respiratory tree at the hind gut of the sea cucumber, or the intestine of the young of the dragon fly, or by the intestinal mucous membrane of the mites which have no lungs or other directly respiratory organ. In the higher animals we have tracheæ, gills and lungs.

In some animals, the respiratory mechanism is closely related to the motor apparatus, as in some crustacea. In some mollusca the nutritive and respiratory mechanisms are closely related. In the highest of all there is central apparatus-gills or lungs-for the respiratory exchange between the blood and the air, and a circulatory apparatus for carrying the blood to and from the respiratory organs. The adaptivity of insects to varied conditions of oxygen supply is marvellous.

Before showing some classical experiments and illustrating the principles already laid down, I should like again to direct your attention to the association of several processes with respiratory mechanisms.

[The lecture was illustrated by means of lantern slides, showing the respiratory mechanisms from the lowest to the highest animals, and also by a number of experiments dealing with the chemical exchanges in the process of respiration. Lastly, the classical experiment of John Hunter, on the pneumaticity of the bones of birds, was shown in the duck. A candle flame was extinguished when held in front of the divided trachea, when air was blown into the divided humerus bone of the wing.]

UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.

ON June 27, Amherst College, Massachusetts, conferred the degree of M.A. upon Mr. Lundin, of Messrs. Alvan Clark and Sons, the following being President Harris's characterisation :-" CARL AXEL ROBERT LUNDIN: Scientific expert in cutting and fashioning glasses of great telescopes. He has done important work on the large objectives of Russia, of the Lick and Yerkes observatories, and lately on the 18-inch objective of the Amherst College Observatory, which is wholly his work. In 1854 Amherst conferred the degree of Master of Arts on Alvan Clark, who had built our first telescope. The same degree, for a similar service, is conferred on his successor, who has kept pace with the progress of astronomical science."

As interesting inquiry as to the representation of science in the principal public libraries of Paris is being made by the Revue Scientifique, and the results are published week by week, from July 1 onwards, in the form of letters and opinions from the principal librarians and professors of science in France. The opinion is generally expressed that an unsatisfactory state of affairs exists in libraries such, for instance, as the Bibliothèque nationale and the library of the University of Paris owing to the fact that the librarians are almost exclusively graduates in arts and letters, and ignorant of the requirements of men of science. It thus happens that, the available funds

H

CH...

...

N 1763 H2O... 15'95

Percentage weights of total gases.

...

20'97 33'02 14.85 30.56 26.53 15.03 34.87 H 13752 9:48 18.95 9'94 CH... 023 5'55 8.94 N 15.99 15.62 12.89 13.36 H2O... 22.76 21.30 18.15 16.49 18:00

14.68

29.16

20171

35763

23.20

20'01

10 54

O'29

0:49

9:25

11.19

11.16

16.69

...

I'14 0.18

0.67

162

0 72

174

0'79

318

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
LONDON.

Royal Society, May 15.-"Contributions to the Physiology of Mammalian Reproduction. Part i., The Estrous Cycle in the Dog. Part ., The Ovary as an Organ of Internal Secretion." By F. H. A. Marshall and W. A. Jolly. Communicated by Prof. E. A. Schäfer, F.R.S.

The experiments lead to the conclusion that the ovary is an organ providing an internal secretion which is elaborated by the follicular epithelial cells or by the interstitial cells of the stroma. This secretion circulating in the blood induces menstruation and heat. After ovulation, which takes place during oestrus, the corpus luteum is formed, and this organ provides a further secretion the function of which is essential for the changes taking place during the attachment and development of the embryo in the first stages of pregnancy.

June 8.- Researches on Explosives." Part iii. By Sir Andrew Noble, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S.

The principal object of the researches which are communicated in this paper was to ascertain, with as much accuracy as possible, the differences in the transformations

which modern explosives suffer when fired under gradually increasing pressures. The first part of the paper gives a description of the varied apparatus employed.

Although the author has made experiments with many other explosives, those examined in this paper are three in number :-(1) Cordite; (2) the cordite known as M.D.; and (3) a tubular nitro-cellulose.

The modes of observation and calculation followed are described, and then in tabular form are given the results of the series of experiments on the three explosives named. These tables being too extensive to reproduce in full, the results of the experiments at the lowest and highest densities alone are given :

Specific heat.

0*223850°23714 0*22529 | 0°23772

Temperatures of explosion, Centigrade. 5151°1 57494 4056° 2 50268 | 3488° 1 Comparative potential energy.

0.9825

4282 9

10000 | 0.8401 08842 07389 07656

If the figures given in these tables be carefully examined, it will be observed that for the three explosives the transformation on firing appears, in all, to follow the same general laws.

Thus in all three there is, with increase of pressure, at first a slight increase, afterwards a steady decrease, in the volume of permanent gases produced.

In all three explosives there is, with increased pressure, a large increase in the volume of carbonic anhydride, and a large decrease in the volume of carbonic monoxide. In the volume of hydrogen this decrease with increase of pressure is very great; while methane, the percentage of which with low pressures is quite insignificant, very rapidly increases, and at the highest density is from twenty to thirty times greater than at the lowest density.

There are some variations in the percentages of nitrogen and water vapour, but on the whole these constituents may be considered to be nearly constant.

The units of heat developed show with increased pressure a slight decline at first, but afterwards increase somewhat rapidly at the higher pressures.

In the tables submitted it will be observed that the specific heats and the temperatures of explosion have been given, but with respect to temperatures so far above those in regard to which accurate observations have been made the figures given can only be taken as provisional.

These temperatures have been obtained by dividing the units of heat (water gaseous) by the specific heats; although provisional, they can safely be used in comparing the temperatures of explosion of the three explosives. The comparative approximate potential energies are obtained by multiplying the volume of gas produced by the temperature of explosion. The for the three explosives are respectively-cordite, 0-9762; M.D., 0-8387: nitro-cellulose, 0-7464. The highest potential energy (taken as unity), it will be noted, was obtained from cordite at a density of 0.5.

means

It is submitted that the wide differences in the transformation of the three explosives with which the experiments have been made justify the general conclusion at which Sir F. Abel and the writer arrived in the year 1874 (Transactions of the Royal Society, vol. clxiii. p. 85) with respect to gunpowder, viz. that any attempt to define by a chemical equation the nature of the metamorphosis which

an explosive may be considered to undergo would only be calculated to convey an erroneous impression regarding the definite nature of the chemical results and their uniformity under different conditions.

The paper continues with a description of the experiments made to determine the time required for the complete ignition of certain explosives, and also of other experiments to determine the rate at which the exploded gases part with their heat to the walls of the vessels in which they are confined; and in conclusion it is pointed out that the experiments made on erosion, with the three explosives referred to in this paper, and with some other explosives, have satisfied the author that the amount of absolute erosion is governed practically entirely by the heat developed by the explosion.

"Colours in Metal Glasses, in Metallic Films, and in Metallic Solutions." 11. By J. C. Maxwell Garnett.

Expressions, giving the refractive index and the absorption coefficient (the optical constants) of a compound medium consisting of metal (1) in small spheres (granular), and (2) in discrete molecules (amorphous), diffused through an isotropic non-dispersive transparent medium (the solvent), in terms of the corresponding optical constants of the normal metal, were first obtained. The particular formulæ, which apply when the volume proportion (μ) of metal in the compound medium is small, followed immediately. By means of these formulæ and of the numerical values of the optical constants of gold, silver, and copper for monochromatic light of several different wavelengths, the values of the corresponding optical constants of diffusions of spheres and of molecules of these metals, in glass, in water, and in vacuo, were calculated and tabulated. The absorptions of monochromatic light by specimens of gold and copper ruby glass and of silver-stained glass were measured. A comparison of the measured absorptions of gold ruby glass with the calculated absorptions of gold spheres and of gold molecules diffused in glass, and a collation of the results with others previously published, show that the colour of gold ruby glass is primarily due to the presence of spheres (not molecules) of the metal. The presence of crystallites, formed by the coagulation of the gold spheres, and reflecting red light, accounts for the irregular blue and purple colours sometimes transmitted by gold glass. Further, when the absorptions of a colloidal solution of gold in water are compared with the calculated absorptions of gold spheres and molecules diffused in water, it appears that colloidal gold consists of small spheres in suspension.

The close similarity between the observed absorptions of glass stained (amber) with silver, and the calculated absorptions of silver spheres in glass-those of a diffusion of silver molecules in glass are quite different-indicates that the stained region must contain small spheres of silver. The presence of silver spheres (but not of discrete molecules of silver) also accounts for the brilliant blue reflection from the interface between the stained and unstained regions of Stokes's specimens of silver glass. Ehrenhaft's 2 description of the nature and position of the absorption band observed in the spectrum of colloidal solutions of silver describes so well the position of the absorption band determined by calculation for a diffusion of silver spheres (but not of silver molecules) in water as to justify the conclusion that the bulk of the silver present in colloidal solution is in the form of small spheres, little, if any, being in true solution (1.e. molecularly subdivided); and this conclusion is confirmed by the fact that the refractive index of a colloidal solution of silver, which was measured by Barus and Schneider, is precisely that which calculation gives as the refractive index of a diffusion of silver spheres (but not of molecules) in water.

A comparison of the observed and calculated absorptions shows that copper ruby glass owes its colour to the presence in the glass of small spheres of metallic copper; but some copper molecules are probably also present.

Calculation proves that diffused spheres of cobalt would give a reddish colour to glass. Cobalt glass is not coloured by the metal in the metallic form.

1 Phil. Trans., A, 1904, pp. 385 et seq.; NATURE, vol. lxx. p. 213 (June 30, 1904).

2 Felix Ehrenhaft, Ann, der Phys., vol. xi. p. 489 (1903).

The colours produced in gold, silver, and soda glasses by the radiation from the emanation from radium suggest that these glasses contain free ions of the metal, and that it is by the discharge of these ions and the consequent reduction of the metal that kathode and Becquerel rays are able to colour the glasses.

Curves were constructed to show how the calculated absorptions and reflections of red, yellow, green, and blue light by gold and silver films vary with the volume proportion, μ, of metal in the film; and a comparison of these calculated colour changes with those exhibited by the gold and silver films, which Faraday and Beilby had prepared, when subjected to heat and to pressure, indicated that (a) the films as first prepared were in the amorphous or granular phase; (b) heating diminished the density of the film, while pressure was able to increase that density again; and finally (c) this diminution of density was probably effected by the passage of the metal from the amorphous to the granular phase, and by the growth of the larger granules at the expense of the smaller, while increase of density was accomplished by changing some of the metal from the granular to the amorphous phase.

Optical and other evidence led to the conclusion that Carey Lea's silver was not allotropic, but consisted of normal silver in a finely divided (but not necessarily granular) state. It appeared, therefore, probable that many forms of metals, which have hitherto been supposed to be allotropic because they possessed optical properties distinct from those belonging to the metals in their normal states, were merely cases of fine division. Thus the properties of Bolley's lead, of Schützenberger's silver, and of other alleged cases of allotropy cited by Roberts-Austen ("Metallurgy, p. 90), do not require the postulation of an allotropic molecule for their explanation.

Faraday Society, July 3.-Mr. W. R. Cooper in the chair. Some notes on the rapid electro-deposition of copper: Sherard Cowper-Coles. The various processes for increasing the current densities in copper deposition by using mechanical means for keeping the copper smooth are classified as follows:-(1) revolving or moving the kathode; (2) burnishing the copper during electrodeposition; (3) insulating the growths on the copper so as to prevent further increase; (4) rapid circulation of the electrolyte; (5) revolving mandrel at a critical speed (centrifugal process).-The use of balanced electrodes: W. W. Haldane Gee. The electrolytic oxidation of hydrocarbons of the benzene series, part ii., ethyl benzene, cumene and cymene: H. D. Law and Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin. The electrolytic analysis of antimony H. D, Law and Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin.-Notes on heat insulation, particularly with regard to materials used in furnace construction: R. S. Hutton and J. R. Beard.-Storage batteries and their electrolytes: R. W. Vicarey.Alternate current electrolysis: Prof. E. Wilson. The two last papers were taken as read, and the discussions postponed until the autumn.

DUBLIN.

Royal Irish Academy, June 26.-Prof. R. Atkinson, president, in the chair.-Prof. Ronald Ross gave an

account of the researches which resolved the malaria problem, and took occasion to refer to the interesting mathematical problems connected with the diffusion of mosquitoes.

PARIS.

Academy of Sciences, July 31.-M. H. Poincaré in the chair. The study of refraction at all heights. Formulæ relating to the determination of the coordinates of the stars: M. Loewy. A development of a system of formulæ allowing of the deduction of the positions of two pairs of stars according to the new method given in the Comptes rendus for July 17. Three tables of solutions accompany the paper. On an endoglobular hæmatozoa found in the jerboa M. Laveran. The parasite is described and classified as Haemogregarina Balfouri.—On a secondary reaction of the halogen organo-magnesium compounds : Paul Sabatier and A. Mailhe. The cause of the low yield sometimes observed in the reaction between a ketone

and an alkyl magnesium halogen compound is due to a secondary reaction resulting in the formation of a substituted ethylene. This tendency to the formation of an unsaturated hydrocarbon is especially marked in the case of the isobutyl derivatives. Details are given of several cases. On the theory of surfaces and of envelopes of spheres in anallagmatic geometry: A. Demoulin.-On the properties of a holomorphic function in a circle where it does not take the values zero and unity: Pierre Boutroux. -On a new series of polynomials: A. Buhl.-On sliding friction M. de Sparre. A solution of a problem enunciated by M. Appell in his treatise on mechanics. -The passage of electricity through gaseous layers of great thickness: E. Bouty. It has been shown in previous papers that the critical field y=a√p(p+b), where is the pressure (above 0.1 mm. of mercury), a the dielectric cohesion of the gas, and b a constant for the given flask and gas. In the present communication the constant b is found to be in inverse proportion with the thickness of the gaseous layer, e. The formula thus becomes

v = a

at

where k is a constant which depends only on the nature of the gas.-The electrolytic detector with a metallic point: G. Ferrié. An experimental study of the use of the imperfect contact of a fine metallic point and an electrolyte as a detector for Hertzian oscillations.-On the phenomenon of Marjorana: A. Cotton and H. Mouton. A study of the behaviour of solutions of colloidal iron hydroxide in a strong magnetic field.-On a megaphone: G. Laudet and L. Gaumont. A gas flame, mechanically controlled, is used to intensify the sound waves. On the state of matter in the neighbourhood of the critical point: Gabriel Bertrand and Jean Lecarme. Experiments made upon solutions of potassium bichromate in water and of alizarin in alcohol, temperatures slightly above the critical points, have led to the conclusions that slightly above and below the critical temperature both the liquid and gaseous states exist simultaneously. On the different states of oxidation of aluminium powder: M. Kohn-Abrest. Aluminium powder was heated by electrical means to various temperatures in a current of air; evidence was obtained of the formation of an oxide AlO.-The influence of the fragility of steel on the effects of mechanical treatment in a boiler works: Ch. Frémont.-The modification produced in the metal of rivets produced by the operation of riveting: M. Charpy. On the constitution of sparteine: Charles Moureu and Amand Valeur. The authors summarise their recent work on this alkaloid, and propose a formula for it which is completely in accord with the facts known up to the present.-Chemical oxydases: G. Baudran.— On the variations of the basic function in chromium salts: Albert Colson. On the presence of bile pigments in the medicinal leach: Camille Spiess.-Folded faults and horizontal overlapping in the Mesozoic of Portugal: P. Choffat. On the geology of the southern Carpathians: G. M. Murgoci. Observations on the mode of formation of deposits of blende enclosed in the stratified rocks: A. Lodin.

CALCUTTA.

Asiatic Society of Bengal, June 7.-Religion and customs of the Uraons or Oraons: Father Dehon, S.J., communicated by E. A. Gait. An account of the reputed

origin, mythology, ceremonies, and folklore of an agricultural tribe now settled in Chota Nagpur, but thought to have come from farther south.-Note on a decomposition product of a peculiar variety of Bundelkhand Gneiss : C. Silberrad. A white clayey material found in the Ajaigarh State has been submitted by the author to Dr. O. T. Silberrad, the analysis of which is compared with that of pinite. The two substances were found to resemble one another.

July 5-Four new barnacles from the neighbourhood of Java, with records of Indian pedunculate forms: Dr. N.

Annandale. Of the new species, two belong to the genus Scalpellum, two to Alepas. Of the former, one is remarkable for its great size and for the reduction of the calcified valves; the other for its habit of forming a regular. branched, though not organically connected, colony of several generations. One Alepas is larger than any hitherto described. The specimens were presented to the Indian Museum by the Eastern Telegraph Company, and come, with one exception, from a depth of 160 fathoms. A list of the pedunculate cirripedes known from the seas of British India is added.-Additions to the collection of Oriental snakes in the Indian Museum, part ii. Dr. N. Annandale. Notes on specimens lately received from the Andamans and Nicobars, with the description of a new sea-snake and a list of the Ophidia known to occur in these islands.-The Tibetan version of the Pramanasamuccaya, the first Indian work on logic proper, recovered from Tibet by the late Tibet Mission: Prof. Satis Chandra Vidyabhūṣaṇa.-Materials for a flora of the Malayan Peninsula, No. 17: Sir George King, F.R.S., and J. S. Gamble, F.R.S. This contribution commences with natural order Myrsineæ, and is continued by Sapotaceæ, Ebenaceæ, Styraceæ, and Oleaceæ. The draft of Ebenacea was prepared by Sir George King, that of the other orders by Mr. J. S. Gamble; but the new species are given under their joint names.

The Pathologist,
The Pharmacist,
The Chemist,

The Botanist,

The Geologist,

The Mineralogist, The Entomologist, and all who have to arrange large numbers of bottles, jars, boxes, tubes, and general apparatus.

One hundred 4 oz. bottles occupy less than one square foot of wall space; each bottle is instantly located, removed or replaced, and any size from oz. to a Winchester can be accommodated in the same size Element.

Capacity for capacity it is no more expensive than an ordinary cupboard of like quality.

It is infinitely more convenient.

It automatically indexes and classifies.

It saves 8/10ths of the wall space.

And a vast amount of time in hunting up specimens.

APPLY FOR THE BROWN LIST TO

THE SYTAM FITTINGS CO.,

18 & 19 BASINGHALL BUILDINGS,

Telegrams: Wort, Leeds.

The New Manifolding

Hammond Typewriter.

A Hammond Typewriter will do anything any other Beside, it has typewriter does-and do it better. twenty exclusive features, not one of which is possessed by any other writing machine.

WHY is the Hammond the Best Machine for

Stenographers?

BECAUSE

Perfect and Permanent

Alignment,

Work in Sight,

Manifolding,

Speed,

Durability,
Noiselessness,

Interchangeable Type,

Light Elastic Touch, Perfect Paper Feed, Any Width Paper,

are essential requisites, and the Hammond
possesses them all.

On account of the TYPE being interchangeable, it is most useful to SCIENTIFIC work.

Call and test Machine or write for Catalogue, free on application to:

The Hammond Typewriter Co.,

50 QUEEN VICTORIA ST., E.C. MANCHESTER BRANCH: 164 DEANSGATE, MANCHESTER.

LEEDS.

Telephones 1882 and 1942.

For Illustrated Pamphlet apply

UP TO DATE

in Scientific Demonstrating? If so, send for our full descriptive pamphlet of

the Kershaw-Patent Lantern (Stroud and Rendall's and Kershaw Patents), made of best seasoned mahogany, French polished, lined with asbestos and Russian iron. Fitted with two double achromatic objectives, 90° silvered prism, complete with B.T. or mixed jet, in travelling case, measuring 23" X 16" x 9".

ALL ACCESSORIES SUPPLIED. ARC LAMPS, RESISTANCES,

STANDS, &c.

SOLE A. KERSHAW, Dorrington St., Leeds.

MAKER

CONTRACTOR TO H.M.'s GOVERNMENT.

LABORATORIES FURNISHED

Chemical, Physical, Biological, and all Science Laboratories completely equipped with Benches, Fume Chambers, Cupboards, &c., and Scientific Apparatus of every description.

SEND SPECIFICATION FOR OUR PRICES. We also supply Sinks, Gas and Water Fittings specially designed for Science Laboratories, and Pure Chemicals.