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tribution of power over long distances? Practically, every electrical engineer will at once reply, alternating, of course. Well, I am going to preach heresy. I say direct current ! The alternating current has undoubtedly the great advantage that a motor can be constructed with no rubbing electric contacts, every wire may be permanently soldered in position, a condition of considerable importance in dusty places like mines. Here is such a motor-the first polyphase motor ever sent from America to Europe, the first ever seen in Great Britain, constructed seventeen years ago by Tesla with his own hands, when he was too poor to employ a workman.

Another advantage possessed by an alternating current is that an alternating current dynamo can be constructed to produce a large horse-power at a high voltage, and further, as we have already seen, this alternating voltage can be transformed into a still higher one without the use of moving machinery.

This is one of the five largest dynamos in the world. Its size you can better estimate by looking at the ring standing on end, now projected to the left. The latter is the stationary portion of a 5000 horse-power horizontal shaft dynamo, while the photograph to the right is that of a vertical shaft machine of double that power, viz. a dynamo that can develop 10,000 horse-power at a pressure of 11,000 volts. Fifteen years ago, Ferranti-the Brunel of electricity-spent a mint of money constructing some of the parts of a 10,000 horse-power, 10,000 volt alternator, which were, however, never put together. This dynamo projected on the screen stands complete, with its four sisters, in the Canadian Niagara Power House, and the tests already made show that its efficiency reaches the extremely high value of 98.2 per cent., that is, 1.8 per cent. of the power developed is sufficient to cover all losses. Ferranti's dream is more than realised, and the old story is repeated. We break up the pioneer leviathan, the Great Eastern steamship, as a great unwieldy giant very weak in its knees, a little later we build the Baltic, a third as large again, and with twice the engine power.

Without any transformation at all, these dynamos will economically drive machines some miles away, and, with the pressure transformed up from 11,000 to 60,000 volts, power will be distributed in Toronto, 85 miles away from the falls.

Contrasted with this, no single large direct current machine has ever been constructed to generate more than about 3500 volts, and no means is known for efficiently converting a direct current voltage into a higher, or lower one, without the use of moving machinery.

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So far, then, my case seems weak! The advantages of using great electric pressures we have seen. Are there any disadvantages? This is a disadvantage, the risk of piercing the insulation! See how thick the insulating material has to be on cables, how far apart the conductors have to be placed, even when the cable is intended for only 10,000 volts. But does this consideration supply any argument for or against the use of one kind of current rather than the other? Small current and high pressure must be used for the economical transmission of power over long distances, whether the current be alternating or direct, I agree; but, ladies and gentlemen of the jury, I submit that, while from the point of view of economic transmission, 60,000 volts alternating means exactly the same as 60,000 volts direct, from the point of breakdown of the insulation, 60,000 volts alternating is as bad as 85,000 volts direct, indeed may be worse than 100,000 volts direct. For an alternating current consists of waves like the waves of the sea. In a storm, the waves may be running mountains high, and yet the average depth of the sea remains the same as in a calm. But what does it benefit the poor passengers, when tossed helplessly backwards and forwards in their berths, and feebly calling "steward," to be assured that, although the waves be peaked, and the maximum elevation large, the square root of the mean square of the amplitude of oscillation is quite consistent with perfect internal tranquility? And so feels the poor insulating material-the mean electric pressure may not be very large, and yet the crests of the waves may be so high, and the troughs so low, that its strength cannot stand the electric tossing.

Each of those waves of electric pressure on the diagram

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gives the same reading on a voltmeter, but the peaked on has far more destructive action than the flat topped on! But there are other disadvantages in the use alternating current. This coil of wire represents one f the conductors which, when unwound, might join to places, the one where incandescent lamps (for exampl have to be made to glow, and the other where is the waterpower which drives the dynamo that generates the current. If a direct pressure of 100 volts be applied at one end the system, the lamps at the other end glow brightly, a you see, whereas if now I apply an alternating pressure although of exactly the same value, the lamps are quile dull.

The explanation of this striking difference is that ins such a case only a fraction of the alternating pressure is used in making the lamps glow, the remainder being employed in maintaining a rapidly reversing magnetic field.

This magnetic effect-this self-inductive effect as it t called-is small if the going and return conductors be straight, short, and near together. But if the distance over which the power is to be transmitted be long, the wires obviously cannot be short, and if to obtain econom high electric pressure be used, the wires cannot be put very near together, since that would lead to a brush discharge through the air from one conductor to the other. producing leakage.

Indeed, the minimum distance that must separate the conductors has to be increased very rapidly with the pressure unless their diameter is greatly increased at the same time. The table gives this minimum distance for conducts 1/10th, 2/10ths, and 4/1oths of an inch diameter respectively, and it will be seen that increasing the thickness of the wire greatly diminishes this minimum. For instance, at 80,000 volts, doubling the thickness of the wire from 1/5th to 2/5ths of an inch diminishes the mir mum distance from 64 feet to 13 inches.

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I apply a direct pressure of 100 volts, and no curre enters the transmission line, for it is well insulated an its length and at its ends. I apply instead an alterna... pressure of the same value, without making any change, and you observe a very perceptible current. 1very first thing that struck Ferranti when he commer·| transmitting power with alternating current at 10,000 AV ** pressure, from Deptford to London, was that the curre flowing into the system at Deptford was as large dorin the daytime, when practically no lamps were turned in London, as during the evening, when many were gl

ing. Again, in the case of the 150 miles transmission, at 50,000 volts, by the Bay Counties Power Company, in California, it was found that to charge even the aerial lines as a condenser required 40 amperes, so that the current flowing into the system remained practically unchanged when the useful load was decreased from several thousand horse-power down to nought.

Now this is the very opposite of the effect we previously noticed, for in that case it was the alternating pressure that left the lamps dull by failing to send encugh current into the transmission system. Surely, then, the one effect is a correction of the other. That is so, and I will give you a practical illustration.

I have here two transmission lines, the one with its going and return conductors placed far apart so as to exaggerate the first effect, the other with its going and return conductors near together to exaggerate the second effect; indeed, as I am employing for this experiment only a pressure of 100 volts, there is no risk of brush discharge, and so I have put the wires extremely near together on the second transmission line. The alternating current produced by the dynamo divides itself between the two transmission lines, and the two branch currents are about equal.

But, as you may see by means of the oscillograph-an instrument developed in my laboratories by Mr. Duddell, one of my students, for giving us a picture of the current and pressure waves in each of the two circuits-there is a great difference between the waves in the two circuits. In the transmission line with the wires far apart, the reversals of the alternating current occur after the reversals of applied pressure, the crests of the current wave lag behind the crests of the pressure wave, whereas in the case of the transmission line, with the wires very near together, the exact opposite occurs, viz. the crests of the current wave are in advance of the crests of the pressure wave. Now, in the circuit coming from the dynamo, both current waves exist together, and as the crests of the one wave coexist with the troughs of the other there is interference, and the result is practically no current at all. So here we have the rather surprising result of practically no current in a main circuit, and yet a considerable current in each of the branch circuits into which the main circuit divides.

This may perhaps be regarded as a beneficial result, and should be added to the score of alternating current. But just as a very small alternating current in the main circuit can be split up into two large currents in the branch circuits, a small alternating pressure can be split up into two large alternating pressures, and in that case the result must be scored against the use of alternating current.

In this experiment I use also two circuits, one with the conductors very far apart, and the other with them very near together; but instead of employing these circuits as two branch transmission lines I put them end on, so that they constitute successive portions of the same transmission line. An alternating pressure of only 100 volts is provided by the dynamo and applied to the whole arrangement, and yet you observe that, between the going and return conductors in that part of the circuit in which they are far apart, as well as in that part in which they are rear together, a pressure exists of 2400 volts, which is twenty-four times as great as the entire pressure supplied ly the dynamo to the mains.

This result with alternating electric pressures is not talike that obtained with mechanical forces when a small force is resolved into two very large ones, with each of which it makes nearly a right angle.

Much damage has been done to electric cables, used for the distribution of power, by these unexpected high pressures produced by resonance in alternate current circuits. A cable may have been tested at twice or thrice the working pressure and passed as satisfactory. But if there is a liability of a pressure being applied, which, as You see, may in somewhat extreme cases be twenty or thirty times the working pressure, what avails it that there is a factor of safety of 2 or 3?-disaster must follow. Now with direct current for long distance transmission there is no question about the electric pressure at the top and bottom of a wave being much greater than the mean pressure, no question about self-induction reducing the

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current-no objection, therefore, to putting the conductors as far apart as the risk of brush discharge may necessitate -no question about capacity current, no resonance troubles, &c.

I wonder whether any of you are thinking-Well, perhaps there may be something in this heresy after all. No? Oh! then you are thinking, if the arguments were sound, the direct current system would have been already employed for long distance transmission. Well, but it has! Power up to 3000 horse has been transmitted with direct current, at 14,000 volts, from Combe Garot to Le Locle and La Chaud de Fonds, round a circuit 32 miles long; 4600 horse-power has been transmitted with direct current, at 23,000 volts, 35 miles from St. Maurice to Lausanne; and a transmission system for 6000 horse-power, at 60,000 volts, over 114 miles from Moutiers to Lyons, is in course of construction.

Another advantage that is possessed by all these examples of direct current transmission carried out by M. Thury is that it is the current that is kept constant and the electric pressure that is automatically raised when the demand for power is increased, whereas with the ordinary alternate current system it is the pressure at the lamp end that they aim at keeping constant, and the current that varies automatically with the demand for power

Now it is far more easy to maintain the constancy of the current flowing round a long circuit than to prevent the bobbing up and down of the electric pressure at the distant end of a long transmission line, and that irritating dancing of the lights, with which Johannesburg is so familiar, would be particularly difficult to avoid if the transmission line were long and the electric pressures at its two ends differed by some thousands of volts.

Constant current has also its well known disadvantages, but these would not come into play if the constant current were not taken into houses, mines, &c., but used to drive motor generators in substations, the dynamo portion of the motor generator being of any type desired.

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When, on the one hand, one hears that good ccal is brought from Witbank and delivered to the mines on the Rand at 138. a ton, and that even this price will be lowered on the completion of the new railway from Witbank to Brakpan, one feels that long distance electric distribution has not much chance--indeed, a proposal to burn slack coal at Vereeniging, only 33 miles from Johannesburg, and electrically distribute the power on the Rand, fell through.

On the other hand, when one finds that at the Wankei ccalfields themselves large coal costs 158. a ton ct the pit's mouth, and that Salisbury pays 368. 5d., Umtali 435. bd., and Kimberley 678. per ton, one feels that electric distribution in this country possesses possibilities.

South Wales has many coal mines-cheap slack coal lies heaped at the pit's mouth. Let me put this question to you: "If an electric supply distributing company were to start in South Wales to obtain their electric energy, not from waterfalls, mark you, but from coal brought to their generating stations from coal mines, would you anticipate, I ask, that such a company would obtain customers for their electric energy at coal mines themselves? " emphatically no, you would reply, for that would be taking coals to Newcastle with a vengeance. Yet, what does that map tell us? Why that, within four years since that South Wales company was merely applying to Parliament for an Act to enable them to establish a distribution of power system, fourteen of the largest colliery

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companies and thirty of the mines are taking power 'at about one halfpenny a horse for an hour, the demand three months ago having reached 13,000 horse-power, and rapidly increasing.

That the North-Eastern Railway, and such a large number of manufactories along the Tyne, should, as seen from that other diagram, take power from the Tyneside Electric Power Supply Company-which also has been but four years in existence-was perhaps to be expected, but that coal mines should obtain power by the burning of the product of distant collieries resembles at first sight the method of earning a living attributed to a certain village, viz. by taking in one another's washing.

But this result is but an example of the subdivision of labour. At a coal mine getting coal, and at a gold mine getting gold, is the business, and at both, especially in the early days of sinking the mine, it should pay better to buy electric energy from an outside source than to generate the current on the spot.

Niagara sends 24,000 horse-power to Buffalo, 30 miles away, and sells it at 0.7d. per horse-power hour to an eight-hour user there-a price which is not cheaper than the total cost of generating a horse-power hour at Buffalo with a large steam engine. But tapping electric wires to obtain any amount of power that may be needed, and just at the time that it is required, is far more convenient than erecting steam engines and getting up steam, and certainly cheaper in the early days of sinking a mine.

It has been objected that the total steam-power curves of all the gold mines on the Rand show the same sort of falling-off during the hours 4 to 7 a.m. and 5 to 8 p.m., and, therefore, that, apart from using larger and more economical engines, and from diminishing the cost of superintendence for the energy sent out, there would be no saving by supplying many mines with electric power from a common generating station. But if there be a railway in the neighbourhood, largely used by workmen, the slack hours on the mines will be the busy hours on the railway. Hence, if that railway be run electrically from the same generating station, the load curve will be flattened and much improved.

On the Rand, however, there is an indisposition, apparently, to utilise distribution of power on a large scale. The labour conditions in this country are certainly peculiar. My friend Mr. Denny, in his book on Deep Level Mines of the Rand and their Future Development,' expresses this opinion-and there is no man whose opinions on such matters I value more highly:" It has, however, been fairly conclusively proved that in average conditions hand labour is both speedier and cheaper than machine drilling."

But when one watches this hand labour one thinks of this picture rather than that. Contrary to American and Australian experience, it may be true that in this country white men and machinery may be dearer and slower than black machinery and man rolled into one. But it makes one uncomfortable, even unhappy, to think it possible, for it means that the muscular machine is more valuable than the inventor's brain.

Another objection felt by mine owners here to investing much capital in machinery is the somewhat uncertain character of their business, and a third against a mine depending for a supply of power on an electric current coming from a distance is the climatic conditions.

South Africa has various unique big things, but it has not a monopoly of big atmospheric disturbances, and these disturbances do not prevent electrical distribution of power schemes being pushed forward by leaps and bounds in the other three quarters of the world -the list given on p. 615 is merely a selection from some of those using the highest working voltages. During my short stay in this country I have been giving this matter much consideration. out stopping this evening to discuss the subject in detail, I may mention that, after the admirable work of Mr. Wilms, Mr. Spengel, Mr. Heather, and others here on the improvement of lightning arrestors for electric transmission lines, I think I also see my way to putting a nail into the coffin of these bugbear lightning troubles.

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But while advocating electric transmission of power I should not start by constructing a transmission line from the Victoria Falls to Johannesburg; and I say that, not

because I am of opinion that it could not be made to work, nor that, if direct current were used, it could not be relied on to give as satisfactory results as, or even better results than, some shorter existing ones on the alternate current system, but because it does not appear to me that along the route there is at present sufficient demand for power to justify as large an expenditure of capital as would be compatible with a transmission line 586 miles long as the crow flies, and which would be an less than 745 miles long if made along a railway through Pietersburg and Gwanda, should the missing stretch t railway between these two places ever be constructed.

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Those who hold the opposite view will doubtless urg that when the Cataract Construction Company of Niagara acquired in 1890 the right to use 100,000 horse-power, and a further right to use subsequently another 100,000 horspower, it required an extraordinary belief in the future of electrical engineering to expect that 200,000 horse-power could ever be distributed at a price that could cumpetwith large local steam engines, and they will ask, did not even Mr. George Westinghouse, in 1890, advise M Stetson, the first vice-president of the Cataract Constructions Company, that it would only be by compressed that power could be commercially transmitted from Niagara to Buffalo? And now what is the state of things? Power House No. 1, with ten 5000 horse-power dynamos, has been working for some time, Power House No. 2, with cleven more 5000 horse-power dynamos, was completed last year. Hence 105,000 horse-power can be developed ̧ and of this 75,000 horse-power is regularly distributed. Further, the Canadian Niagara Power Company is constructing an electric station of an ultimate capacity t 110,000 horse-power, the Ontario Power Company an electric station, a little lower down, of 200,000 horsepower, and the Toronto Power Company one, a little higher up, of 100,000 horse-power, all these three bein on the Canadian side.

Also the Electric and Hydraulic Company, which in 1881 started with a station, on the American side, to suppl only 1500 electrical horse-power, has in hand station which will bring its plant capacity up to 15.9 * electrical horse-power.

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Consequently the total electrical horse-power that could be sent out from these various Niagara power houses when completed, will approach 700,000 horse-power, and represents about 30 per cent. of the water going over th falls at the time of minimum flow. But taking in account the further fact that water is already abstract to feed the Welland Power Canal and the Chicag Drainage Canal, and that other canals are projected. Mr A. D. Adams has estimated that about 41 per cent. of the minimum flow of Niagara will cease to pass over the TallIn fact, I conclude that the water that will, in the w future, cease to pass over the Niagara Falls will be five times as large as the total amount passing aze Victoria Falls this month, August.'

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The Thunder of the Waters," the "Cataract Fearful Height, in America, which have inspired us and our ancestors with reverential awe, may appeal to in descendants as only a vast electric generating station. Very gratifying to us as engineers, extremely distresst! to us as lovers of the beautiful.

Now what has caused this vast development in the distribution of power, what is the secret of this extra ordinary success? It is that in the immediate neighbourhood of the falls there have grown up works which tak some 60,000 horse-power, works which not only want cheap power, but power in an electric form for electry chemical processes, and need it in an undiminished amount day and night, week-day and Sunday. The Carborundur Company, which manufactures emery's rival grinding material, furnishes an absolutely steady load of 5000 electro horse-power; the Union Carbide Company 15,000, and on; loads which, from their magnitude and their absol steadiness, make the electric light engineer's mouth water Now what is the prospect of such a steady load groming up locally within, say, 3 miles of your falls

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I The Resident Commissioner of the Bechuanaland Protectorate wurg to The Times from Mafeking the day after the delivery of the lecture said:"The volume of water passing over the (Victoria) Falls, was, true, infinitely less on August 16, 1905, than on the same date in 181 is less to day than it has ever been in the memory of man."

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on the spot it is difficult to obtain trustworthy information; by some it is said that one condition of the contract for the construction of the railway, which is being pushed forward to the copper, lead, and zinc fields at Broken Hill, 400 miles to the north-east, is that 100,000 tons of the ore must be sent to Beira yearly for ten years. If true, then that ore will not be available for reduction at the falls.

There is a convenient spot for a power station near the water at the end of the second gorge-all the Niagara power stations are on the top of the falls, with the exception of those of the Ontario Power Company, and the old Electric and Hydraulic Company-and it is the latter method of construction that would be the most suitable to follow at a Victoria power station.

But jealously guard the beauty of your falls. The protection of the grandeur of their American sister was the underlying idea of Thomas Evershed's hydraulic power scheme of 1886. How little has that object been kept sight of?

Niagara was glorious nature, to-day it is power, Victoria is poetry.

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Mr. Alexander Gardner announces :-" Familiar Scottish Birds," by A. N. Simpson.

Messrs. Gauthier-Villars (Paris) give notice of :- Sur les Systèmes triplement indéterminés et sur les Systèmes triple-orthogonaux, by Prof. G. Guichard, illustrated; (Euvres de Charles Hermite," Tomes ii. and iii.; "Cours d'Analyse de la Faculté des Sciences de Paris, by Prof. E. Goursat, Tome ii. : “Théorie des Fonctions analytiques. Équations différentielles. Equations aux Dérivées par

tielles. Eléments de Calcul des Variations"; Précis de Photographie générale, by E. Belin, illustrated; Les Procédés de Commande à Distance au Moven de l'Electricité," by Frilley; "Les Industries de la Conservation des Aliments, by X. Rocques.

Messrs. Gay and Bird announce :-"The Arab: the Horse of the Future," by Hon. Sir J. Boucaut, K.C.M.G., with a preface by Sir W. Gilbey, Bart., illustrated.

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Messrs. Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd., give notice of :Mining Law," by C. J. Alford; "Mining Geology: a Text-book for Mining Students and Miners," by Prof. J. Park, illustrated; Wireless Telegraphy, by Dr. G. Eichhorn, illustrated; "Electricity Meters," by H. G. Solomon, illustrated; Testing Explosives,' by C. E. Bichel and A. Larsen, illustrated; Paper Technology, an Elementary Manual on the Manufacture, Physical Qualities, Chemical Constituents, and Testing of Paper and Paper-making Fibres, with Selected Tables for the Use of Publishers, Stationers, and Others," by R. W. Sindall, illustrated; "A Practical Laboratory Handbook on the Bacteriology of Brewing," by W. A. Riley; A Handbook of Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology, for the Use of Students and Practitioners, by Dr. W. A.

Brend, illustrated; "Toxine and Anti-Toxine," by Dr. C. Oppenheimer, translated from the German by CA. Mitchell; The Laboratory Book of Mineral Oil Analysis,' by J. J. Hicks, illustrated; "Physico-chemical Tables for the Use of Analysts, Physicists, Chemical Manufacturers and Scientific Chemists," vol. ii., "Chemical Physics, Pure and Analytical Chemistry," by J. Castell-Evans, and new editions of " Petroleum and its Products, a Practical Treatise," by Sir B. Redwood, illustrated; "Gas, Oil, and Air Engines a Practical Text-book on Internal Combustion Motors," by B. Donkin; "Properties of Matter." by Profs. J. H. Poynting and J. J. Thomson, F.R.S.; and Principles and Practice of Brewing, for the Use of Students and Practical Men," by W. J. Sykes, illustrated

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Messrs. Harper and Brothers' list includes :-" Evolution: the Master Key," by Dr. C. W. Saleeby; Pract.al Electric Wiring," by C. C. Metcalfe; and Alternating Currents," by Prof. A. Hay.

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Mr. W. Heinemann's list contains:- The World's History, a Survey of Man's Record," edited by Dr. H. F Helmolt, Eastern Europe, The Slavs, The Teuton and Latin Races, Western Europe since 1800, ' Atlantic Ocean "; Through Five Republics, a Critical Description of the Argentine, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Venezuela in 1905," by P. P. Martin, illustrated; Medicine and the Public," by Dr. S. S. Sprigge; "Concerning Death," by Prof. O. Bloch, edited by Dr. O. Lankester; Sex and Character,' translated from the German of O. Weininger; and "The Dog Book," by J. Watson, 2 vols., illustrated.

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Messrs. Hodder and Stoughton will publish :-" With the Abyssinians in Somaliland," by Major J. W. Jenning and Dr. C. Addison; Woodmyth and Fable," by E. Thompson-Seton; and "The Medical Epitome Series," edited by Dr. V. C. Pedersen, 20 vols.

Messrs. Hutchinson and Co. direct attention to:"Liberia, the Negro Republic in West Africa," by Sir H. Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., illustrated; " With Flash light and Rifle in Equatorial East Africa, a Record of Hunting Adventures and of Studies in Wild Life," try C. G. Schillings, translated by F. Whyte, illustrated. Messrs. T. C. and E. C. Jack announce :-" The Edin burgh Stereoscopic Atlas of Anatomy," edited by Dr. D. Waterston; 66 Moths and Butterflies of the United States East of the Rocky Mountains," by S. F. Denton, illustrated; and five volumes by Dr. C. W. Saleeby entitled respectively: Evolution, Heredity,' Psychology, Ethics, and "Sociology,'

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Mr. F. Lehmann (Stuttgart) promises :-" Oologia universalis palæarctica," by G. Krause, 150 parts, illus

trated.

Messrs. Crosby Lockwood and Son give notice of Motor Vehicles for Business Purposes, a Practical Handbook for Those Interested in the Transport of Passengers and Goods," by A. J. Wallis-Tayler, illustrated; "Milling Machines, a Practical Treatise on their Design, Construction, Equipment and Economic Working, illustrated with Examples of Recent Designs by Leading English, French and American Engineers, by J. Horner; The Elementary Principles of Electrical Engineering, a Class-book for Junior and Advanced Students, by J. H. Alexander, illu trated; The Horticultural Note Book, a Manual of Practical Rules, Data, and Tables, for the Use of Students, Gardeners, Nurserymen, and Others interested in Flower. Fruit and Vegetable Culture, or in the Laying-out and Management of Gardens," by J. C. Newsham; and new editions of Electricity as Applied to Mining," by Lupton, G. D. A. Parr, and H. Perkin, illustrated, and The Art of Leather Manufacture, a Practical Handbook in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tannin. Explained, together with a Description of the Arts of Gine Boiling, Gut Dressing, &c.," by A. Watt.

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