THE FEEDING HABITS OF MERITHERIUM AND PALEOMASTODON. 1 THROUGH the discoveries in the Oligocene of the Fayûm Mæritherium and Palæomastodon have become famous as two of the carliest, and more or less direct, stages in the ancestry of the elephants. In restorations by various authors each of these animals has been provided with a proboscis of less or greater length, as would befit a more or less remote ancestor of an elephant. As first announced by Dr. C. W. Andrews, to whom we are chiefly indebted for our present knowledge, Moritherium does anticipate the Palæomastodon type in the enlargement of the second pair of upper and lower incisors and in the general pattern of the grinding teeth. Since the wish is always father to the thought, and nothing is more to be desired than a primitive progenitor of the Proboscidea, it was altogether natural to place Moritherium in or near the line of ancestry of the elephant, and in such ancestry, as a member of the Proboscidea, the animal has gone into general literature. A first more cautious note was sounded by Dr. Andrews in his memoir of 1906, p. xvii, in which he observes:"As already mentioned, Moritherium was probably an amphibious, shore, or swamp living animal, and it was no doubt owing to the continuation of the conditions favourable to its mode of life that it persisted into the Upper Eocene period. In the meantime, however, either from this or some closely allied type, there had arisen another animal more adapted to terrestrial life and showing a great advance in the direction of the typical Proboscidea: to this creature the name Palæomastodon has been given." Elsewhere (p. xxi) Dr. Andrews notes that Mæritherium favours the view, first put forward by de Blainville, of an original relationship between the Proboscidea and Sirenia. Later on in the same work (p. 119) the same author, in commenting on the similarity between the pelvis of Moritherium and that of the Eocene sirenian Eotherium, observes :"Then it may fairly be suggested that Mæritherium and Eotherium, both eccurring in the same region (one the most primitive Proboscidean, the other Occupying the same position with regard to the Sirenia), are, in fact, closely related, and had a common ancestor in early Tertiary times, probably in the Lower Eocene." On p. 105 we find a comment on the remarkable likeness between the brains of Maritherium and the Sirenia. man under the writer's direction.' Palæomastodon itself in all probability had not developed a proboscis, although there is no question as to its being in the direct line of proboscidean ancestry. Moritherium not only had no proboscis, but was totally different from Palæomastodon both in its appearance and habits, and only very remotely related to this animal, if at all. The study shows, further, that Moritherium is closer to the Sirenians and less close to the Proboscidea than has hitherto been supposed. A profound difference between these animals is brought out in comparing the top and side views of the skull, when it is seen that, whereas the eyes of Palæomastodon are in the typical mammalian position above the first permanent grinder, those of Moritherium are very far forward, well raised in the front part of the head, and of very diminutive size, as shown by the shallowness of the sockets. All these are also characters of the Sirenian head. As indicated by the auditory meatus, the ears are relatively in a more elevated position than in Palæomastodon. Both these peculiarities are adaptations to aquatic life to protect the sense organs and bring them near the surface of the water in swimming, so that they will emerge first and disappear last. FIG. 1.-Side view of the head of Palæomastodon modelled by Mr. E. Christman under direction of Since these suggestive comments were written other materials have been secured, including a nearly perfect skull and jaws of Palæomastodon by the British Museum and a skull of Palæomastodon and two partly preserved skulls of Maritherium by the American Museum. The question of habits and of affinity seems so important and interesting that the writer has taken it up afresh with these additional materials. The inquiry was suggested by the general resemblance which the skull of Moritherium bears to that of a Sirenian as seen from above and in palatal view. The method of comparison adopted is that of making life-size models of the skulls of Maritherium and Palæomastodon, then placing the sense organs and the mouth parts in position, guided solely by comparison with existing mammals showing more or less analogous modifications and by the actual condition of the hard parts themselves. This work was done by Mr. E. Christ 1 These Palæomastodon beds were at first regarded as Upper Eocene, but closer compari-on with those of Europe has shown that they should be rather considered as Lower Oligocene. 2 "A Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayûm, Egypt." (London, 1906.) the author. The cutting teeth and mouth parts of Moritherium are also opposed in an entirely different manner from those of Palæomastodon, so that it may be said safely that there was not the most remote resemblance either between the mouth parts or the feeding habits of these two animals. In the former the nasal bones do not greatly recede, and there was consequently little or no free retractile power of the upper lip, which is always the rudimentary condition in the evolution of a proboscis, as witnessed in the living tapirs. Comparison with Hyrax, the beaver, and other animals with an enlarged pair of front teeth tends to show that the upper and lower lips were heavy and fleshy, somewhat similar in form and function, that is, in prehensile power, and that the blunt tusks may have been covered when the mouth was closed, somewhat as in the hippopotami. These tusks were feeding rather than fighting weapons, probably because Moritherium was protected from attack by its aquatic habitat. The conclusion is that Moritherium was a confirmed and continual riverliving animal, feeding mainly under water and on the banks, more specialised for aquatic life than the hippo 1 The models have been reproduced and copies presented to the British Museum. The writer is indebted to Mr. W. K. Gregory for many valuable suggestions. potami, as indicated by its feeble pelvis, but less specialised than the Sirenians. It would not be far from the truth to say, from our present knowledge of the animal, that Mæritherium is an offshoot of the Proboscideo-Sirenian stock, with slightly nearer kinship to the elephants than to the Sirenians. The distinctive peculiarities of Palæomastodon are that its eyes are in the position typical among mammals, that is, above the first true grinders. The reason that they appear to be so far back is that the lower jaw is extended unusually far forward. The upper jaws, on the other hand, recede, practically terminating at the sides in the very sharp, laterally compressed tusks, which at this stage were chiefly developed as fighting or defensive weapons, while only indirectly of value as feeding organs. It is noteworthy that when the upper and lower lips are restored in such a manner as to enable the animal to close the mouth, the upper tusks are so largely covered that they are not especially prominent In contrast with Maritherium, the nasal bones and openings deeply recede; thus a very wide space is left to be filled by a large retractile upper lip, which could undoubtedly be raised or lowered. The question now power of the anterior portion of the lower jaws, these parts having receded and disappeared. The elephant thus presents the widest possible contrast with Palæomastodon, in which the most prominent part of the face is the projecting lower teeth and jaw. It is obvious that the development of a proboscis took place step by step with the recession and loss of prehensile power in the lower jaw. If Palæomastodon had possessed an independent prehensile proboscis extending beyond the line of the mouth for the seizing of food, we cannot assign any function to these large and much worn lower incisors. A more probable view, therefore, seems to be that here presented in the model of the head and mouth parts, which were made directly upon a model of the skull itself. In the stages between Palæomastodon and the M. (Trilophodon) angustidens, the Lower Miocene elephant of Europe, the lower incisors have begun to transform into tusks to be employed in uprooting plants and smaller trees, just as the upper tusks are used by elephants now. With this change their prehensile function was gradually abandoned and assumed by the upper lip, which thus began its slow evolution into a freely projecting and prehensile proboscis. All restorations contain a large element of conjecture: FIG. 2.-Side view of the head of Maritherium with the eye and ear in position. The form and position of the nostrils is somewhat coniectural. Modelled by Mr. E. Christman under the direction of the writer. arises, How far had this lip begun to transform into a proboscis? Was there a free projecting proboscis as represented in several previous restorations? A negative answer appears to be furnished by the structure and mode of wear of the lower incisors. Together these form a broad, protrusive, spoon-shaped feeding organ, which is invariably greatly worn on the upper surface and somewhat less at the ends. This worn upper surface seems to prove that in the prehension of food the edge of the upper lip was constantly pressed downward against these teeth, thus, with the aid of fine particles of grit and sand, which were occasionally taken in, causing wear. In brief, the food appears to have been seized between the upper lip and the spoon-shaped lower teeth. Palæomastodon was a browser, and this lip could be turned up and retracted effectively to pull down smaller branches, but there is no reason to suppose that it had the free curling and independent prehensile power which characterises a true proboscis. If we critically consider the theory of the animal possessing a proboscis of considerable length, we find it rests upon the idea of kinship with the elephant rather than upon careful study of the mouth parts themselves. If, now, we consider the elephant, we find that one of its many unique features is entire loss of the prehensile we shall certainly never know how these most interesting animals of the Lower Oligocene rivers of the Fayûm actually appeared, but the first rule of restoration is not to be too much influenced by kinship, but to adhere to the evidence afforded by the hard parts themselves. This rule has evidently been broken by the writer in attributing a small elephantoid ear to Palæomastodon. Unfortunately, there is no means of even conjecturing the shape of the ear of this animal, except to exclude the small aquatic type of ear which may be attributed Mæritherium. H. F. OSBORN. to THE HEALTH CONGRESS THE Royal Sanitary Institute and No more fitting person than Colonel T. W. Harding could have been selected to fill the presidential chair, who fills at the present moment the important office of chairman of the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal. It is difficult within the space of a few paragraphs to present a comprehensive review of the varied topics which came up for discussion in the different sections, and embraced anything from the treatment of tuberculosis to that of trade effluents, and from the ventilation of cowsheds to the hygiene of the mouth. Although many of the views expressed, especially in the recently formed child-study section, were of a tentative nature and the result of incomplete experience or of individual opinion, a striking feature of the congress was the earnestness displayed by those participating in it, a remarkable fact when one considers how much of the work connected with sanitary matters is self-imposed, largely unofficial, and purely disinterested. It seemed appropriate that the president, an old Leeds citizen, should have referred in his opening remarks to the sanitary improvements of the town, which had nearly halved the death-rate in fifty years; but the greater part of his address was devoted to a general survey of the growth of public interest in and control of sanitation, and the present-day problems of urban life. Among the present-day problems he referred to the continued high mortality from phthisis, pneumonia, and diphtheria, and the heavy death-rate among children. Although the presi 66 dent pointed to the great advances which have been made in sanitary reform in nearly every direction, he raised the important question as to whether the present system of elementary education is wholly good. We are spending," he said, "large sums in elementary education; would it not be well to pause awhile and see if we are moving on right lines? We are cramming young minds in frail and half-fed bodies with all the information we can get into them, and most of it will soon be forgotten. By all means let us teach what we can, but without impairing physical development, which is much the most important work to be seen to. In Mr. J. T. Quinton's (Liverpool) address to the conference of sanitary inspectors we were introduced to the inner working of the local sanitary machine and to the difficulties encountered by sanitary inspectors by the selfinterest of those in the council whom they serve. He further touched on the subject of alcoholism, welcomed the introduction of systematic instruction in public elementary schools on its effects, and deprecated the view advanced by some that alcohol constitutes an article of food. He demanded further State interference in the matter of alcoholism, and the repeal of the exemption of patent and proprietary goods from the Food and Drugs Act. One of the most thoughtful and comprehensive of the sectional addresses was that delivered by Dr. Newsholme (principal medical officer of the Local Government Board) to the preventive medicine section on some conditions of social efficiency in relation to local public administration, which can only be appreciated by a full perusal. Dr. Newsholme began by showing how closely interrelated are the social and sanitary problems, and how a more accurate knowledge and wider outlook will enable social problems to be seen more nearly in their correct perspective. By way of illustration he pointed out that "if the avoidable loss of life and health from communicable diseases were realised by the members of the sanitary authority, they would be less likely to build extravagant town halls while the water supply of the town is impure, or to provide municipal Turkish baths while backyards and streets remain unpaved. . . . And this more accurate knowledge and wider outlook means the abandonment of the old handto-mouth and empirical method of dealing with social evils. The conception of poverty and destitution as an element when it is, in fact, a complex compound will disappear, and with it will disappear administration. which supplies doles to relieve the symptoms of destitution, without making efficient efforts to investigate its varying causation and to initiate preventive measures against its recurrence. "We have to realise the close interdependence of social evils, which often form a vicious circle where evil effects become, in their turn, sources of evil." As sickness is one of the main causes of sickness, poverty is one of the most potent causes of poverty. The growing tendency is to stop disease, whether communicable or not, at its source, the prompt and early treatment being one of the chief means of securing social efficiency, and the better organisation for the treatment of the sick, from whatever disease, must be regarded as a chief object of the preventive medicine of the future. The monetary value of lives lost, including cost of sickness, through phthisis, enteric fever, and other diseases, is so large that measures of prevention may be regarded as the best possible investment for the community. In the latter part of this suggestive address Dr. Newsholme pointed out the insecurity of tenure of medical officers, who are re-elected for periods of one to five years, and, unlike district medical officers, relieving officers, and vaccination officers, can be removed without the consent of the Local Government Board. further referred to the overlapping and waste produced by the great variety of authorities dealing with closely related conditions. He In the presidential address to the engineering and architectural section, by Mr. G. F. Bowman (Leeds), reference was made to the question of back-to-back houses, and a strong case was made out for the erection of buildings of the modern type already existing in Leeds; but whether in this connection the working classes "should be the best judges of what is best for themselves is a dictum open to grave criticism. Education) chose for the subject of his address in the child-study section child mortality. He began by pointing. out that, of the annual half-million deaths in England and Wales, one-third occur under the age of fifteen years, and of this third 85 per cent. are under five years of age. Whereas the death-rate at all ages above one year shows a steady decline, there is no such indication below that. period. The first two years of life "form a veritable fire through which we pass the vast majority of the children of the nation, losing in the process approximately 150,000 of them every year, and marking many of the survivors with the signs of the flame." The three primary causes, then, are the physique of the mother, infant mismanagement, and exposure. "It is idle," said Dr. Newman, to patch up children at school age if we first make them all pass under damaging and devitalising conditions at the beginning of their lives." In the industrial hygiene section Dr. Whitelegge (London), as president, gave an address on the relation of health to industry. He began by referring to the improvements in industrial conditions brought about by the combined action of employers and employed, and to the responsibilities thrown upon local authorities in respect to initial construction of buildings. He pointed out the difficulties which attend an investigation into the causes affecting health in certain complex trade processes unless the different operations are separately grouped, and he further emphasised the importance of keeping safety appliances in an efficient state. In this connection he mentioned the importance of permanent local exhibitions of safety appliances, such as exist abroad, especially in textile centres, in metal and mining localities, and in the Potteries. Thus, in the removal of dust, as in metal grinding, there is no source of information, and unless expert advice is taken costly mistakes may result. There are standards of ventilation, of humidity, and of soluble lead in which employers and employed should have oppertunities for instruction. Lead poisoning from glazing has been reduced by three-quarters in the last twelve years, but phthisis, or potters' rot," from dust inhalation is still prevalent. Clearer definitions as to factory lighting and temperature in reference to humidity are required, and further information should be obtained in reference to fatigue in different arduous employments. The welfare of operatives in certain industries is affected by demands on the part of consumers. A large section of the public had grown accustomed to phosphorus matches, and it was not until the match manufacturers agreed unanimously to the prohibition of phosphorus, coupled with prohibition of import, that the Government was able to put an end to this needlessly dangerous branch of industry. 66 In his presidential address to veterinary surgeons, Mr. H. G. Bowes (Leeds) welcomed the recognition accordeď by the President of the Local Government Board to the necessity of proper veterinary inspection of dairy cattle, though, he continued, "why the farce of the M.O.H. inspecting the cows, accompanied by a veterinary surgeon, should be kept up I don't know." nor why the inspection of cowsheds and bvres should not be done by the same inspector. He further advocated the appointment of a veterinary adviser to the Local Government Board, whose advice in dealing with bovine tuberculosis would be invaluable. He emphasised especially the necessity for more rigorous treatment of this disease, which, it is unanimously agreed, is transmissible to, and a recognised cause of, disease in human beings. In view of the widespread nature of the disease at present, the slaughter of all tainted cattle would be impracticable, but a gradual weeding out of the worst cases as centres of infection might be initiated. A most important step has been taken in the Tuberculosis Order which comes into force on January 1, 1910, which requires compulsory notification and slaughter of all cattle obviously affected. He claimed further attention to the condition of cowsheds throughout the country, as exercising an important effect in diminishing the disease. In the conclusion of his address Mr. Bower referred to the abuse of tuberculin by the indiscriminate sale. The treatment of sewage was among the subjects which came up for discussion at a joint meeting of the engineering, bacteriology, and chemistry sections, when interest Dr. Newman (principal medical officer of the Board of ing papers were contributed by Messrs. E. J. Silcock, Mr. A. J. Martin, J. T. Thompson, and G. A. Hart. He In the section of preventive medicine an important paper was read by Dr. Robertson (Birmingham) initiating a discussion on tuberculosis. He pointed out that more human suffering is due to tuberculosis than to any disease, that it was produced by infection derived from cases of phthisis, from milk, and possibly from meat, and developed slowly after the germ is taken into the system. emphasised the importance of milk and meat in carrying infection, and pointed out that more than 30 per cent. of dairy herds are infected. In this connection more attention should be given to the ventilation of cowsheds. Dr. Woodcock (Leeds) followed with a paper on the physique of the phthisical as a means of diagnosis, whilst Dr. Trevelyan (Leeds) discussed the methods of preventing infection from those already suffering from the disease. An interesting discussion followed, and a resolution was passed that the Health Congress wishes to direct the attention of agricultural societies to the great assistance which they might render to the community by making it one of their conditions in offering prizes for dairy cattle that the animals should be free from tuberculosis." Subsequently papers were read on the food supply. Imported and canned foods were dealt the protection of with by Dr. H. Williams (London) and Dr. W. F. Dearden (Manchester), whilst Dr. Savage (Colchester) discussed the administrative measures for examining food supply in general, Mr. W. G. Barnes (London) advocated measures for eradicating tuberculosis from the milk supply, and Dr. Stedman explained methods of administering the Order." Dairies' In the bacteriology section papers were tributed by Mr. J. Johnstone; on the significance of leucocytes in milk as indicating a need for detailed examination, by Dr. Savage (Colchester); on the catalase of milk as an indicator of disease, by C. Revis (London); and on the growth of the bacillus tuberculosis, by Dr. Moore and R. S. Williams (Liverpool). In the latter the important observation was made that the bacillus will only grow between certain definite limits of oxygen pressure, being equally stopped by absence of oxygen or by more than 60 per cent. To stop and kill the organisms completely about 70 per cent. of oxygen must be present, which does not interfere with the majority of other organisms tested. In the same section a joint paper was read by Prof. Grünbaum and Dr. M. Coplans (Leeds) on the selective action of preservatives, in which they discuss the effect of different preservatives on the growth of organisms. Papers were also contributed by Mr. J. C. G. Ledingham (Aberdeen), on the bacteriology of summer diarrhoea; by Dr. S. G. Moore (Huddersfield), on the advantages derived from its notification to the authorities; and by Dr. Buchan (St. Helens), on administrative measures for its reduction. An interesting series of papers was read in the engineering and architectural section on water supply and treatment of trade water, and in the section on industrial hygiene lead poisoning, its pathology and prevention, abstracts of which, from want of space, cannot be given. Sir Charles Cameron gave an attractive popular lecture on underground and overground air. con During the congress the University of Leeds took advantage of the occasion to confer degrees honoris causa on the president of the congress, Colonel T. W. Harding, and on Sir James Crichton-Browne, F.R.S., and Major Ronald Ross, F.R.S. LANCASHIRE FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS.1 Liverpool for 1908 gives evidence of sustained investigation into problems that demand several years' work for their solution. The articles are in almost every case continuations of those contributed to the report of 1907, and it is therefore unnecessary in a brief review to do 1 Report for 1908 on the Lancashire Sea-fisheries Laboratory at the University of Liverpool and the Sea-fish Hatchery at Piel, No. xviii. Pp. 366 +9 plates. Drawn up by Prof. Herdman, F. R.S., assisted by Andrew Scott and J. Johnstone. (Liverpool, 1909.) more than summarise the findings of the several workers case. Prof. Herdman gives a further instalment of results obtained by tow-netting with modern nets in the Irish Sea. This method of obtaining the floating or drifting organisms is now becoming more delicate, and the catching power of the nets is more accurately known than was formerly the The object in view being an exact determination of the distribution and fluctuation of the plankton," no trouble is too great and no determinations are too laborious to deter the director of the fisheries work. Accordingly, this paper contains an immense amount of data both as to methods and results with regard to the seasonal and local variations in this fauna, and also with reference to the influence of conditions upon its abundance and behaviour. The statistical work involved in such a report is very great, and the credit of these laborious tables is due to the zeal of Mr. Andrew Scott. On the whole, the results of 1908 show the correctness of the conclusions arrived at in the previous contribution to this "intensive study of plankton round the Isle of Man, but they also probability of considerable importance to fishermen, as demonstrate some seasonal divergences which are in all affecting the arrival of spring or autumn migrants. The only criticism that we feel justified in making upon such a heavy and valuable undertaking is the absence of any analysis of the light-factors that influence plankton, but we hesitate to press this criticism, as Prof. Herdman has not published the whole of his results. Of the more striking fishery papers, attention may be directed to Mr. Johnstone's important experiments on quarantining mussels. Mr. Johnstone has determined the degree of bacterial pollution in a number of shell-fish taken from Welsh and Lancashire bays, and finds that the contamination, though, as a rule, not serious, is probably due to general contamination of the water or sea-bed in these districts. In some cases, however, the pollution is more serious, and, by transferring these heavily infected mussels to cleaner open water, Mr. Johnstone finds that in four effected. The bare fact, of course, has long been known, days' quarantine the maximum amount of sterilisation is is a continuation of that more extended investigation which for oysters infected by typhoid, for instance, but this report is needed in order to enable fishermen themselves to increase Johnstone also contributes papers on the temperatures of a healthy supply of shell-fish near the larger towns. Mr. the Irish Sea, on the growth and migration of plaice, on Weigall on the outfit of the fine new boat. James Fletcher, parasitic growths in flat fish, and a joint paper with Capt. which the Lancashire Sea-fisheries Committee commissioned recently. aspects of biological investigations are not overlooked, and In addition to these papers, the wider hydrographical study of the Irish Sea by a further analysis are glad to see that Dr. Bassett has continued his of its salinities. It is to be hoped that aid will be forthcoming to provide the Lancashire committee with a member of staff specially devoted to such work. we Lastly, reference must be made to an excellent résumé (in regard to catching power) by Mr. Dakin. of the method for finding the coefficient of plankton-nets This gentleman's elaborate study of Pecten, forming an appendix to this report, has been noticed already in these columns (May 6, p. 273), and we may merely, therefore, refer to it as an example of the good results obtained by bringing different methods to bear upon the study of an organism. ORIGIN AND RITES OF GYPSIES. IN the Journal of the Gypsy-lore Society for April Miss D. E. Yates publishes a translation of a paper by Prof. R. Pischel, originally published in the Deutsche Rundschau for 1883, on the home of the Gypsies. Reviewing various references to the origin of this race, he comes to the conclusion, on the evidence of philology, that the Gypsy dialects are closely connected with those of Dardistan, and he accordingly fixes this region as the original Gypsy home. This view is based largely on materials collected by Drew, Biddulph, and Leitner. It is unfortunate that this opportunity was not taken te utilise the results of Dr. Grierson's linguistic survey, which now supplies ample glossaries and grammars by which the problem may be solved. Pischel's view is accepted by Dr. Grierson in his chapter on the languages of India in the first volume of the Report on the Census of India for 1901. He regards the Indian origin of the Gypsies as fully established, and while it is doubtful from which Indian tribe they really sprung, he believes that they spoke one of the non-Sanskritic Indo-Aryan tongues, which are by him grouped under the heads of ShinaKhowár, Káfir, and Kalasha-Pashai. The work of Sir G. Robertson on the Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush also supplies materials which might have been utilised in re-editing Prof. Pischel's paper. Mr. E. O. Winstedt contributes to the same number of the journal an interesting paper on the Gypsy rites connected with birth, marriage, and death. It is a good collection of material, much of which has been gathered from comparatively obscure sources, but it is to be regretted that before publication it did not pass through the hands of a competent student of comparative ethnography. Among birth rites, he notes the customs of laying the child on the ground, the passing of the mother and baby through fire into which, among some of the subtribes, drops of the father's blood are allowed to fall. In connection with marriage, we have references to the customs of exchanging wives; the use of the broomstick and tongs as marriage symbols; the lifting of the bride over the doorstep; the exchanging of vows over a dead horse or hen; the blood covenant; the dance upon layers of sweetmeats; the custom of placing lighted candles, eggs, and apples in a stream; a custom, probably misinterpreted, of so-called marriage by capture; methods of divorce; and the curious custom, which has Indian parallels, of the father-in-law cohabiting with his daughterin-law during the youth of his son. Among death rites, he mentions that of burning the clothing and other property of the dead man at the time of his burial, a custom of which various interpretations are suggested; interment without a coffin; disinterment of the dead; and the pouring of liquor on the grave. The variance of custom among the different Gypsy groups points to the conclusion that they have assimilated much from the races with whom they successively came into contact. It is now probably too late to fix the exact provenience of customs such as are described in this paper. If this could be done it might furnish valuable material for the investigation of the origin of this mysterious people. CLIMATOLOGICAL REPORTS. THE climate of the island of Norderney (lat. 53° 43′ N.) forms the subject of part iii., vol. xxxi., of Aus dem Archiv der deutschen Seewarte. The observations were very carefully made several times a day for nearly ten years (between 1880 and 1890) by the late Mr. O. J. Ommen; the instruments and exposure were not all that could be desired, but Dr. R. Assmann, of Lindenberg, has taken great pains to correct these defects, as regards temperature, by comparisons with hourly observations at Hamburg, Bremen, &c., the result being that the paper becomes a very useful contribution to the meteorology of the coast of East Friesland. The moderating influence of the sea upon the air temperature is plainly shown; the autumn and winter months have higher, and the summer months lower, temperatures than the Continental stations; the yearly variation at Norderney is only 17.1° C., while at Berlin it is 19.2°. It is interesting to note that the equinoctial gales maintain their old reputation at Norderney, the stormiest months being March and October. The year-book of the Austrian Meteorological Service for 1907, which has recently been published, contains, as in previous years, hourly (1) readings or means at observatories possessing self-recording instruments; (2) daily observations and monthly summaries at a number of selected places; and (3) temperature and rainfall tables for all stations. Many of the stations are situated at great elevations, and the data are consequently of especial interest. The observations at purely rainfall stations are not included in the year-book, but are published separately at by the hydrographic department. With the aid of the Academy of Sciences, the Austrian Meteorological Society and other bodies, the investigation of the upper air by means of balloons has been regularly continued, and the detailed observations are published in the Anzeiger of the academy. The reports of earthquake phenomena various stations are also published in the Anzeiger, and, in addition, a weekly report is issued. This special service was taken over during the late Prof. Pernter's administration, and to it the office owes its present name," Zentralanstalt für Meteorologie und Geodynamik." In connection with its system of weather telegraphy, forecasts are sent by wire daily, free of charge, from April to November, to all post and telegraph offices in Austria; to south Tyrol they are sent all the year round. The report by Captain H. G. Lyons, director-general of the Survey Department, Egypt, on the rains of the Nile basin and the Nile flood of 1907, contains valuable statistics of the monthly and mean rainfall at a large number of stations in and near the Nile basin, with particulars of the lake- and river-levels of 1907 and previous years. The rainfall at Lake Victoria was 20 per cent. to 30 per cent. in defect, and caused famine in parts of Uganda, while on the Bahr el Jebel, the White and Blue Nile, the rains were mostly weak and irregular; the basin of the Atbara alone had a fair amount. The Nile flood was late in commencing, and very weak throughout the year; the volume of water which passed Wadi Halfa and Aswan respectively, between July and October, was only 0-65 and 0.60 of an average flood. That a flood which was so complete a failure should not have had a disastrous effect on Egyptian agriculture, Captain Lyons remarks, is due to improvements in the irrigation system of recent years and to rains on the Abyssinian tableland in the early part of the year. The investigation of the rainfall of Abyssinia is of great importance in estimating the supply of water, but there is at present an almost complete absence of trustworthy observations. The stations established by the Italian Government in Eritrea furnish most valuable results for understanding the meteorological conditions of the eastern Sudan; telegraphic rainfall reports sent daily from Addi Ugri in August and September rendered important assistance in connection with forecasts of the flood. The year-book and rainfall report for 1908, issued by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute, have been received. These volumes contain :-(1) Hourly readings and means for Christiania, observations taken three times a day at selected stations, and monthly and yearly summaries at other places; (2) daily rainfall values at 200 stations, with monthly and yearly summaries and other details at 449 stations, and yearly amounts and averages for each year from 1867. The charts showing the yearly distribution of rainfall (isohyets) for each 200 mm. clearly exhibit the effect of the rugged land on the water-laden currents from the Atlantic. The isohyets on the western coasts show amounts of 2000-3000 mm. ; these amounts rapidly decrease to 1000 and even to 400 mm. in the interior of the country. The weather forecasts issued by the institute are generally very accurate; those for the Christiania district show an average success of 88.3 per cent. This result is to some extent due to daily telegrams from Iceland and Færöe Islands, and to reports of weather at British stations, now received through the medium of the Deutsche Seewarte. PROCESSES FOR THE FIXATION OF ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN. THE HE fixation of atmospheric nitrogen on a commercial scale has already been the subject of articles in NATURE (February 8, 1906; August 30, 1906; July 23, 1908). The method used by Birkeland and Eyde depends upon the well-known fact that an electric arc may be broadened out into a fan shape under the influence of a magnetic field. Through the arc thus formed air is driven. Since, however, only a small portion is raised to the temperature necessary for the reaction, while the greatest part serves for cooling, the gases escaping from the Birkeland furnace at a temperature of from 600° C. to 700° C. do not contain more than from 1 per cent. to 2 per cent. of nitric oxide. For further cooling, the gases |
